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Mabey and Thomson (2001) The research found that more than half the firms who responded to the survey did not have a management development budget. The kind of development rated most highly was on-the-job training. Also highly valued were external courses and seminars. Most managers preferred a mixture of structured and unstructured management development. 5.3 Capabilities needed for specific aspects of management and leadership 5.3.1 Management competences can be taught A number of studies have shown that core managerial competences can indeed be taught (Newman and Milne 1992). However, current MBA programmes may not always be achieving this and there is a need for varied methodologies within MBA programmes (Boyatzis et al 1996 – see box). How management competences can be taught Boyatzis et al (1996) found in their research that for management competences to be acquired, programme design needed to incorporate: individualised assessment and development activities; diagnostics of present competences; and opportunities to experiment and explore the use of different competences in ‘work’ settings. They also found that the person must desire to change and that the programme must relate to the individual’s belief systems and personal learning goals. Several other studies have also shown that the MBA does give positive learning outcomes (see for example Kretovics 1999). The MBA therefore does seem to be effective for some people and some outcomes. However, it is recognised in the literature that the measures used to assess management learning outcomes are not fully satisfactory. More research is needed to develop better tools if learning is going to be adequately assessed. 5.3.2 Creativity and the management of change Creativity and the management of change are interconnected issues. The management of change requires innovative (creative) approaches. Similarly, creativity will itself lead to change. Despite a lack of consensus about what creativity is and how it varies between individuals, it is widely believed that creativity can be taught, or at least fostered (Sternberg 1999). Creativity is increasingly becoming part of the curriculum in higher education and there are a number of approaches to how this can be achieved (Dewulf & Baillie 1999). Some authors are sceptical of these approaches. A recent comment in a report from SKOPE (Keep & Westwood 2003) for example comments negatively on management development courses where students play with Lego. On the other hand, other writers such as Chia (see box) see innovative methods as necessary for developing the ‘entrepreneurial imagination’. 54
The ‘entrepreneurial imagination’ Robert Chia (1996) in his work argues strongly for the need for managers to develop what he calls the ‘entrepreneurial imagination’. The manager today must be adaptive, able to think the unthinkable, and able to work in an unpredictable and volatile environment. Chia maintains that poetry, art and literature are necessary for developing the critical sensitivity that leaders need. He quotes a Japanese management development programme where 100 of the brightest and best were picked out for the training. The training consisted of retreating high in the mountains to learn the art of tea pouring and observe the movement of carps, so that they would develop a keen sensitivity to subtle relationships and recursive patterns. Not only is there debate about how to foster creativity in an educational setting, there is also little known about how to embed creativity within the organisation. This is an area which is little researched. There do, however, seem to be certain factors in an organisation which can promote creativity (Roffe 1999 – see box). How organisations can foster creativity Roffe (1999) found that key factors in the organisation which encourage creativity are: having reward structures which support creativity not conformity; support for risk taking and change; tolerating mistakes; and giving recognition for new ideas and innovations. Corporate creativity is also part of the management of change. An organisational culture which is open to creativity will be open-minded, encourage flexibility, respect diversity, and stimulate the expression of ideas. The need to manage change, both that which is internal to the organisation and that which is happening externally in the social, economic and technological environment and which affects the organisational context, will require new management development activities (Winterton et al 2000 – see box). This is likely to include different kinds of courses, more experiential learning and more focus upon people management skills. Winterton et al (2000) in a wide-ranging literature review examined social, technological, economic and political change and future trends. They recommend greater targeting of SMEs, the need for providers to offer other kinds of learning beyond that which is qualificatory, in particular the use of experiential learning, greater focus on people management skills, and greater focus on managing change, developing vision, and increasing enterprise. They conclude that more management development will be needed in order for managers to respond to changing times and suggest that a norm of 10 days per year rather than the present average of 2 or 3 is needed. 55
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The Development of Management and L
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This report has be
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4.3.1 Impact of HRM and management
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1: Executive Summary The executive
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Page 95 and 96: Jennings, D. (2002). Strategic mana
Page 97 and 98: NHS (2003). Leadership Qualities Ca
Page 99 and 100: Senge, P (1990). The fifth discipli
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