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VOJAŠKA
ZGODOVINA
MILITARY
HISTORY
Številka/Number Številka/Number 1 1 (16), (16), (16), Letnik/Volume Letnik/Volume Letnik/ Volume 10/2009
10/2009
M I L I T A R Y H I S T O R Y ! 1

Izdajatelj: Vojaški muzej Slovenske vojske
Uredniški odbor:
dr. Valerija Bernik Burja
!"#$%&!"'(&)"*#"+&,-.#"/
dr. Damijan Guštin
dr. Ronald Haycock (Kanada)
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urednik)
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in odgovornega urednika)
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4%(&F%G-3&DH=!-41&7E28*%-#"?
dr. Rok Stergar
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mag. Marjan Vešnar
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Proofreader: Andreja More
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Publisher: Defensor d.o.o.
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Printed by: Euroadria d.o.o. Ljubljana
Number of Copies Printed: 800
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Articles have been reviewed and proofread.
Responsibility for content lies with authors. No part of
this publication may be reproduced without the prior written
permission of the Military Museum of the Slovenian
Armed Forces and without acknowledgement of source.
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Kazalo
Contents
!
T. Lazar 7
!"#$%&'$&()*)&($+",-)#).&/$0-$'1"2-+","3#)&($1)*-)&41)1$%-)#)
& ,&#$-5"#'56&,$+73#"87&170,$+7
Once Were Warriors: Late Medieval Martial Arts Manuals
in the Context of Military Development
!"#$%&'()*# 27
& 9$1)*-"&,"3%)-"&,&4$0-":&'1"2-+":&,"#6
Martial Arts in the Late Middle Ages
D. Cvet 45
& ;70)'#7,7&$&&170417,7>?&#)&$4)'6+"+$
& =@715"&2"**@71:)071"?&$#.&ABAC
An Examination of Fiore dei Liberi and His Treatises Describing
L`arte dell`Armizare, c. 1410
+"#,')-.)## 59
& 9$1)*-7&2$#51)-7&D$>7--"'7&=)"E>5"-76"1+7&,&)-5"141"57E)+)
& F7-#7&GH(1)-8"1+7&)-&I)8:6-27&;)-8"E#7
Johannes Liechtenauer’s Martial Arts Doctrine Interpreted by
Hanko Döbringer and Sigmund Ringeck
T. Lazar 83
& J$+-)&4$>$2&#$1$3#"87&,$+,$2"&F"-1)#7&41$5)&K7-817-2"+6&2"**7&IE7*)&4$*"5)&ALMB
The Military Campaign of Duke Henry of Carinthia against Cangrande della Scala,
Summer of 1324
/"#01.)'2# 107
& K"*+'#)&81$N+"&)-&-7+":-)35,$
The Counts of Cilli (Celje) and Mercenarism
3"#4'56278(# 123
& I1"2-+","3#$&$1$O+"&)-&($+-7&$41":7&)0&'*$,"-'#)>&:60"+'#)>&0()1#
Medieval Arms and Armour in Slovenian Museum Collections
9"#:';

Tokratna številka Vojaške zgodovine je te-
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3#"&2&0$.3:!&8%:43#:!&2:/>(&A$!:3-&!"#=:3&
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4$2-38/-=& %".-8/"2L& /-& -!"& 2& *>#-3-& +:& B$'"*$&
tradicijo. Za slovensko zgodovinopisje pa je
2:34"%1:&0%:1$!3"&28"#&2&:3:!&0$'1:4>&_&;:-
0%"2&*>4-&3"I"&!:4-:2-8*-/"&2&."43#-=&4:8:*1:-
*#-=&4$+-21#"&8-1$2-*&%".2$#L&8$&B-1:&%".-8/"2:&2$#skovanja
v tem obdobju dolgo zapostavljene.
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B1-/"H-#"&2&*"/I3-&$B1-/-L&/-&2&H:1$*-&$B%"23"2"&
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B1-+3#-&0%-=$43$8*-&0%-4%>+-1"&I:&/"/I3"(&
Zamisel za zbornik se nam je poro-
4-1"&$B&0%-0%"2"=&3"&4:1"23-H$&8%:43#:2:I/-=&
B$%-13-=& 2:I;-3L& /-& #:& B-1"& RR(& -3& RV(& $/*$B%"&
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-3&42"&4$!";"&-3*:%0%:*"&0$.3$8%:43#:2:I/-=&
8-8*:!$2& B$#:2"3#"J& 6"3"4;"3"& 81$2:38/:'"&
%$4>&O"2-4"&)(&`2:*"L&^:="&A:*%"&)"*$>I/"L&
Slovaka Martina Fabiana ter Igorja Sancina in
C$!"3"& @>;"#3/"(& D& *$& 4:1"23-H$& 8!$& 3"4"-
1#:2"1-& -3& 3"4'%"4-1-& 3-.& 0$4$B3-=& 0%-%:4-*:2L&
/-& 8!$& #-=& 0$4& 0$/%$2-*:1#8*2$!& K"%$43:'"&
!>.:#"& D1$2:3-#:& 2& ."43#-=& 1:*-=& 0%-0%"2-1-& +:&
2:;/%"*(& D$4:1$2"3#:& .3"38*2:3:& >8*"3$2:& .&
%".-8/$2"1H-& 8%:43#:2:I/-=& B$%-13-=& 2:I;-3& 8:&
#:& -./"."1$& ."& 01$43$L& 8"#& *"/$& 0%:48*"21#:3"&
-3&$+-21#:3"&.'$4$2-3"&2:43$&3"1:*-&3"&4$B:%&
odziv javnosti. Da bi dogodek obrodil tudi trajnejše
sadove in poudaril potrebe po bolj siste-
!"*-;3-=&.3"38*2:3-=&%".-8/"2"=&2&0%-=$43$-
8*-L&8!$&8:&$41$;-1-L&4"&0$8/>8-!$&/&*:!>&H-1#>&
prispevati še spodbudo v obliki samostojnega
in – kar je morda še pomembnejše – interdisciplinarnega
zbornika.
& @$#"I/"&.'$4$2-3"&8*"%:#I-=&$B4$B-#&8:&
2&D1$2:3-#-&/$!"#&0%:B>#"(&X.2-%3-=&0%:'1:43-=&
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4 ! V O J A Š K A Z G O D O V I N A
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Foreword
!
This edition of Military History is entirely dedicated
to various aspects of combat in the Late Middle
Ages. It is a modest contribution to the rapidly
O%$]*2O& I%"2F:& $;& 6*1*'"%C& :*E'$%C-& ]:*F:& "1%3"8C&
maintains a rich tradition outside of Slovenia.
M3@3%':313EE-&"'&13"E'&*2&$23&"E>3F'-&*'&>%3E32'E&"&'B%2ing
point for Slovenian historiography. Although our
domestic medieval studies have experienced dramat-
*F& 83@31$>632'& *2& ':3& 1"E'& 83F"83E-& ':3& %3E3"%F:& $;&
warfare in this period was long neglected. This journal
is the first Slovenian publication that addresses
the subject in a comprehensive manner. As interest in
':*E&'$>*F&*E&*2F%3"E*2O-&]3&;*%61C&I31*3@3&':"'&*'&]*11&
soon be followed by other similar publications.
The idea for the journal came up during the
preparations for a workshop on medieval martial
"%'E-&]:*F:&]"E&:318&;%$6&QQ&'$&QU&_F'$I3%&USSY&*2&
Ljubljana. The workshop hosted several foreign and
two Slovenian interpreters of late medieval combat
ECE'36EL& 4"@*8& !.& 0@3'-& "& 0"2"8*"2& $;& N1$@32*"2&
%$$'E-&H3'3%&!"'$BJ3,&;%$6&':3&0+3F:&`3>BI1*F&"28&
!"%'*2&P"I*"2&;%$6&N1$@",*"-&"E&]311&"E&WO$%&N"2F*2&
"28&`$6"2&GBA"#2,.&5:3&]$%,E:$>&]"E&"&F$2'*2B"tion
and upgrade of a series of similar events which
were organised under the auspices of the National
Museum of Slovenia several times over the last few
years. The cooperation of a scientific institution with
researchers of medieval martial arts has proven to
I3&"&>%$8BF'*@3&B283%'",*2O-&E*2F3&:*E'$%C&>%3E32'38&
and revived in such a manner always receives a good
public response. In order for this event to have a lasting
impact and stimulate more systematic scholarly
%3E3"%F:& *2& ':3& ;B'B%3-& ]3& 83F*838& '$& F$2'%*IB'3& '$&
this objective by issuing an independent – and what
is perhaps even more important – an interdisciplinary
journal.
The military history of earlier periods has just
E'"%'38&'$&363%O3&*2&N1$@32*".&_%*O*2"1&'%3"'632'&IC&
domestic authors providing a clear overview of this
subject matter is practically non-existent. There are
only a small number of thematically limited studies
which may provide some support. This is partly
also reflected in the articles on the following pages.

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!"3#& -.;%0"1-(& K"#& B$4$& 3"I-& 0%-80:2/-& 0%:4vsem
izziv slovenskemu zgodovinopisju in tvo-
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9"&/$3:H&4$1'>#:!$&-8/%:3$&."=2"1$&8$4:-
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1"23-H:L&I:&B$1#&0"&0%-&-.4"#-&*:'"&.B$%3-/"b&B%:.&
3#-=$2:&0$40$%:&'"&3:&B-&B-1$(&c0"!$L&4"&8:&B$&
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obetamo prvi celovit prikaz vojaške zgodovine
slovenskega prostora.
5$!"+&& "28-& 3@32& 6$%3-& ;$%& ':3&
publication of this journal. It would not have been
realised without their help. We hope that our coop-
3%"'*$2& ]*11& E'%32O':32& "28-& "'& ':3& E"63& '*63-& ]3&
wish their newly established institution luck and
O%3"'&EBFF3EE-&*2&>"%'*FB1"%&*2&>1"22*2O&':3&6BE3B6&
exhibition in the Cadet School in Maribor where we
hope to see the first comprehensive display of the
Slovenian military history in the following years.
5$6"(&D"+"%
Guest editor
National Museum of Slovenia
M I L I T A R Y H I S T O R Y ! 5

6 ! V O J A Š K A Z G O D O V I N A

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Once Were Warriors: Late Medieval Martial Arts
Manuals in the Context of Military Development
U0,*"%"#
T
" # $ % & ' ( % ) % *
univ. dipl. zgodovinar, kustos
Narodni muzej Slovenije, Prešernova 20, 1000 Ljubljana; e-mail: tomaz.lazar@nms.si
A$#"2& 0-8"3-=& -3& -1>8*%-%"3-=& B$%-13-=& 0%--
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ujema s korenitimi spremembami evropskega
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vlogo so prevzemali najemniški vojaki. V Evro-
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/2"%#"#$&.&B$%-13-!-&2:I;-nami.
Kljub ozki tematiki pa gre v resnici za
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8$4-& !:4& 3"#8*"%:#I:& $=%"3#:3:& 8%:43#:2:I/:&
1 Germanisches Museum, Nürnberg, Cod. HS. 3227a. Objava z delnim prevodom je
dostopna na spletu: David Lindholm, Cod. HS. 3227a or Hanko Döbringer Fechtbuch
from 1389, http://www.thearma.org/Manuals/Dobringer _ A5 _ sidebyside.
pdf (obiskano 12. 9. 2008).
Abstract
The emergence of written and illustrated martial
arts manuals in the Late Middle Ages coincides with
profound changes in European warfare. In the 14 th
F32'B%C-&':3&;3B8"1&"EE36I1C&$;&,2*O:'E&O%"8B"11C&1$E'&
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3@32'B"11C&':3&BE3&$;&;*%3"%6E&E>%3"8.&W2&':*E&F$2'3a'-&
the development of a formalised teaching of martial
arts is explained in particular as the endeavor for
more effective military training which ensured survival
on increasingly dangerous battlefields at the
end of the Middle Ages.
Key words: "%638& ;$%F3E-& ]"%;"%3-& !*8813& /O3E-&
'%"*2*2O-&6"%'*"1&"%'E-&]3">$2E-&*2;"2'%C-&63%F32"%-
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The Nuremberg Manuscript dating from around
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the combat system of the German fencing
master Johannes Liechtenauer. 1 This document is
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as the number of educated medievists who research
martial arts remains limited as well. Not only deal-
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interesting document because it belongs to the oldest
preserved medieval martial arts manuals. By its
1 Germanisches Museum, Nürnberg, Cod. HS. 3227a. The publication with a partial
translation is accessible online: David Lindholm, Cod. HS. 3227a or Hanko Döbringer
Fechtbuch from 1389, http://www.thearma.org/Manuals/Dobringer _ A5 _
sidebyside.pdf (visited 12 September 2008).
M I L I T A R Y H I S T O R Y ! 7

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pa vsebuje le krajša besedila in je zato manj povéden.
Nürnberški rokopis razkriva vpogled v
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Musašija. 3 &F3"/$&.4%>+1#-2&#:&*>4-&8&I*:vilnimi
sodobnimi vojaškimi sistemi bojevanja
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hand combat with various types of weapons. Master
Liechtenauer’s technique is aggressive and direct: the
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motion in order to neutralise an opponent’s attacks.
The number of techniques and positions is reduced
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is better to master only a small number of truly effective
techniques than to be superficially acquainted
with numerous techniques that one might never be
able to successfully execute in cases of emergency.
These teachings are surprisingly reminiscent of the
classical piece of writing by the legendary Japanese
swordsman Miyamoto Musashi. 3 It is equally compatible
with numerous modern military systems of
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*2E'%BF'$%E-&EBF:&"E&P"*%I"*%2-&NC,3E&"28&/>>13O"'3&
from the time of World War II. 4
_B%&,2$]138O3&$2&e$:"223E&D*3F:'32"B3%&*E&%"':-
3%&1*6*'38-&]:*F:&*E&*28338&B2BEB"1&;$%&"&6"2&]:$&*E&
considered by modern research to be the undisputable
focal personality of late medieval martial arts.
/E&3"%1C&"E&8B%*2O&:*E&1*;3'*63-&*2&':3&E3F$28&:"1;&$%-&
6$%3&>%3F*E31C-&*2&':3&':*%8&dB"%'3%&$;&':3&Q[ th cen-
'B%C-&:3&O"*238&':3&%3>B'"'*$2&*2&':3&K3%6"2&E'"'3E&
of being an exceptionally skilled swordsman. Even
later in the German Schools of Fencing in the 16 th
F32'B%C-& D*3F:'32"B3%fE& 2"63& 832$'38& dB"1*'C& "28&
his skills were passed on to younger generations in a
more or less unchanged form. 5 He was certainly not
the first fencing master on the European continent
"28-&>%$I"I1C&2$'&':3&;*%E'&$23&"I13&'$&3E'"I1*E:&:*E&
own eminent fencing school. The introduction of the
Nuremberg Manuscript gives a humble explanation
that Liechtenauer himself did not invent his fencing
'3F:2*dB3E-&IB'&':"'&:3&:"8&'%"@31138&'$&6"2C&F$B2tries
where he thoroughly studied and understood
the essence of martial arts that had already existed
for hundreds of years. 6 He himself did not leave any
]%*''32& 8$FB632'E& '$& >$E'3%*'C.& M3@3%':313EE-& ':3&
2 Royal Armouries, Leeds, Ms. I.33.
3 Miyamoto Musashi, Knjiga petih prstanov, Ljubljana 1999.
4 William E. Fairbairn, All-In Fighting, London 1942; id., Get Tough! How to Win in
Hand-to-Hand Fighting, New York, London 1943; Rex Applegate, Kill – Or Get Killed,
Harrisburg 1943; Rex Applegate – Chuck Melson, The Close-Combat Files of
Colonel Rex Applegate, Boulder 1998.
!" 5%'467/)/8" 5,$49" Meister Johann Liechtenauers Kunst des langen Schwertes,
Frankfurt 1985, in particular p. 17 ff., is still considered to be the main study
concerning the German school of fencing.
6 Cod. HS. 3227a, 13 v.

4$/>!:3*-%"1-& 3#:'$2-& >;:3H-L& 4"& B-& $=%"3-1-&
.3"3#:&."&0%-=$43#:&%$4$2:(&5$&#:&B-1$&%:83-;3$&
3$2$8*L&8"#&B-&8-&I:&':3:%"H-#$&"1-&42:&0%:#&/"#&
0$4$B3:'"&*:+/$&0%:48*"21#"1-(&
O:#8*2$L& 4"& #:& 4-1$&3"8*"3:/&I*:2-13-=&B$%-13-=&0%-%$;-
3-/$2& -3& 8& *:!& :2%$08/:& B$%-13:& 2:I;-3:& 0%:-
!"/3-1$&2&4$B$&0-8!:3$8*-L&I:&3-&B-1$&4:1:+3$&
2:;#:& 8*%$/$23:& 0$.$%3$8*-(& K:& !$%:!$& '"&
0%:0%$8*$& %".1$+-*-& .& 2:;#$& 8*$03#$& -.$B%".B:&
"1-&"B8*%"/*3-!-&201-2-&%:3:8"38:L&8"#&#:&+:&$4&
Re(&8*(&0$&:2%$08/-=&42$%-=&-3&01:!-I/-=&B-2"-
1-I;-=&/%$+-1"&80:H-"1-.-%"3"&1-*:%"*>%"L&3"!:-
3#:3"&2.'$#-&!1"4-=&2-*:.$2L&B$4$;-=&2$#"/$2J&
npr. _%8323&83&F:3@"13%*3 anonimnega avtorja
ter izjemno vplivna Libre de l'orde de cavalleria
C"!$3"&11"L 7 &/-&8$&#$&!3$+-;3$&0%:0-8$2"1-&
in ponatiskovali še v zgodnjem novem veku. V
-8*-&8/1$0&8$4-&I:&&0%:1$!:3(&9"/"#&
je do tega preloma prišlo prav ob koncu sred-
3#:'"& 2:/"L& !$%4"& 0$8*"3:& 1"+:& %".>!1#-2$&
ob upoštevanju širšega vojaškozgodovinskega
konteksta tistega obdobja.
V/">$5-7&1",$*6E)+7W&)-&
41$N"')$-7*)07E)+7
Na velike spremembe v evropskem vojsko-
2"3#>&2&.";:*/>&R\(&8*(&#:&"%'>!:3*-%"3$&$0$-
.$%-1&+:&B:1'-#8/-&.'$4$2-3"%&f"38&@:%B%>'':3( W
K"#B$1#&$;-*3$&#-=&/"+:&."0$%:4#:&80$0"4$2L&/-&
8:&#:&.";:1$&.&B-*/$&0%-&`$>%*%"-#>(&5"!&#:&RR(&
#>1-#"&ReTV&:1-*"&P%"3H$8/:'"&2-*:I*2"L&0$&801$-
I3:!&0%:0%-;"3#>&8$4$B3-/$2&3"#>;-3/$2-*:#I"&
2$#"I/"& 8-1"& 2& F2%$0-L& 3"0"41"& '$8*:& P$%!"H--
#:& P1"!8/-=& 0:I"/$2(& N1"!8/"& 0:=$*"& #:& B-1"&
4$/"#&4$B%$&$B$%$+:3"&8&8>1-H"!-L&$/$2"3-!-&
'$%#";"!-L&8"!$8*%:1-&-3&*>4-&."I;-*3$&$0%:!$(&
:" ;8,%'",$%+/$?>,%"@AAB.
9 Jans F. Verbruggen, The Art of Warfare in Western Europe During the Middle Ages,
C22+D8,+E/"@AA:9"4)8."@@@"4$."78&2)'2"+/$2"-/"?2+"'%4$2&20"De Krijgskunst in West-
Europa in de Middeleeuwen izšlo l. 1954.
contents of his lessons were written down and illustrated
by his students to preserve his knowledge for
O323%"'*$2E&'$&F$63.&5:"'&]"E&*28338&*22$@"'*@3-&"E&
something similar was difficult to be imagined one
or two generations earlier.
The fact that Liechtenauer’s work stimulated the
production of numerous martial arts manuals that
moved the European martial arts to the era of lit-
3%"FC& :"E-& ;$%& ':3& '*63& I3*2O-& 2$'& I332& EBI#3F'& $;&
O%3"'3%& 3a>3%'& "''32'*$2.& g3'-& ':*E& ;"F'& F"22$'& I3&
simply explained by a higher educational degree or
"IE'%"F'&*2;1B32F3E&$;&':3&`32"*EE"2F3-&E*2F3&*2&':3&
13th century specialist literature written for the
education of young knights and future soldiers already
circulated in castles and other residences of
2$I13632.& P$%& 3a"6>13& _%8323& 83& F:3@"13%*3& ]%*'ten
by an anonymous author and the exceptionally
influential Libre de l’orde de cavalleria written by
Ramon Lull 7 were copied and reprinted in shoals well
into the Renaissance. The book Livre de chevalerie
IC& K3$;;%$*& 83& 0:"%2C-& ]:*F:& ]"E& ]%*''32& "%$B28&
QcXS- 8 belongs to the same literary tradition. Along
with philosophical reflections on moral and ethical
F$83E& $;& ,2*O:'1C& F$28BF'-& 2$23& $;& ':3E3& ]$%,E& *2clude
anything more than general guidelines for the
>%3Z6*1*'"%C& 38BF"'*$2& $;& ;B'B%3& ,2*O:'E.& _21C& E31dom
can one find practical advice on combat and
one would search in vain for descriptions of fight-
*2O&'3F:2*dB3E.&W2&':*E&F$2'3a'-&':3&1*'3%"%C&$>BE&$;&
Liechtenauer’s students marks a significant turning
point in martial arts literature. The reason why this
occurred at the end of the Middle Ages can be easier
understood taking into consideration the broader
military historic context of that time.
»Infantry Revolution« and
Professionalisation
The Belgian historian Jans Verbruggen V had long
ago pointed out and explained the great changes that
occurred in European warfare at the beginning of the
14 th century. These changes became most evident in
the sequence of conflicts that began with the Battle of
0$B%'%"*.&_2&QQ&eB1C&QcSU-&':3&31*'3&$;&':3&P%32F:&2$-
I13&,2*O:'E-&]:*F:&]3%3-&"FF$%8*2O&'$&':3&O323%"1&F$2-
'36>$%"%C&$>*2*$2-&':3&31*'3&6*1*'"%C&;$%F3&*2&3-&
attacked dense formations of Flemish infantry units.
:" ;8,%'",$%+/$?>,%"@AAB.
9 Jans F. Verbruggen, The Art of Warfare in Western Europe During the Middle Ages,
Woodbridge 1997, p. 111 ff. The original book under the title De Krijgskunst in
West-Europa in de Middeleeuwen was published in 1954.
M I L I T A R Y H I S T O R Y ! 9

P$'$TH:$'$L&5$6"(&D"+"%
Zmagoviti škotski kralj Robert Bruce na spomeniku pri Ban-
3$H/B>%3>L&/#:%&8$&3#:'$2:&;:*:&1:*"&ReR\&0%:0%-;1#-2$&0%:!"gale
britansko vojsko.
@& B$#& #:& $4I1"& 08-=$1$I/$& !$*-2-%"3"L& >*%4-1"&
0"&8:&#:&3"&!$;3:!&$B%"!B3:!&0$1$+"#>L&."-
2"%$2"3:!&.&!$;2-%#-&-3&#"%/-(&61#>B&*:!>&2:-
;-3"&0$.3"2"1H:2&'$*$2$&3-&2:%#:1"L&4"&8:&B$4$&
:3$*:&P1"!8/:&!-1-H:L&8:8*"21#:3:&-.&1:&4:13$&-.-
>%#:3-=&!:I;"3$2&-3&0$4:+:1"3$2L&1"=/$&>0%1:&
3"8/$/>&*:+/$&$/1:01#:3-=&P%"3H$8/-=&2-*:.$2L&
/-&8$&#-=&."&B$#:23-/:&8-8*:!"*-;3$&2.'"#"1-&$4&
!1"4-=& 3$'(& 9'$4-1$& 0"& 8:& #:& 0%"2& *$& _& 81"B$&
>8/1"#:2"3-&P%"3H$8/-&3"0"4-&8$&4%>'&."&4%>-
'-!&0%$0"4"1-&$B&'$8*:!&.-4>&P1"!8/-=&8>1-;-
3-=& $8*-L& 2& !:*:+>& 0"& #:& 0"41$& 3"#!"3#& RTTT&
P%"3H$8/-=&2-*:.$2&$.-%$!"&/"%&\T&4$&YT&$4-
8*$*/$2&H:1$*3:&2-*:I/:&/$3#:3-H:L&>4:1:+:3:&2&
3"8/$/>(&N1"!H-&8$&4$8:'1-&.!"'$L&/-&#:&$8>-
03-1"&2:8&."=$43-&82:*( 10
O$1'$%$;3:#I:&0$81:4-H:&B-*/:&0%-&`$>%*%"-#>&
so bile bolj dvoumne. Francoski kralj je kmalu
.B%"1&3$2:&8-1:L&4"&B-&8:&!"I;:2"1&."&*:+/:&-.-
'>B:&-3&."4>I-1&>0$%&2&N1"34%-#-(&@&3"81:43#-=&
1:*-=& 8*"& 81:4-1-& 42:& B-*/-& 7E%j>:8L& ReTeL& *:%&
)$38[:3[A:2:1:L&ReT\?&.&B$1#&"1-&!"3#&3:$41$-
;:3-!&%:.>1*"*$!&_&0%:#I3#-&0$%".&#:&N%"3H$.:&
-.>;-1L& 4"& 3-8$& 2:;& P%$3*"13$& 3"0"4"1-& *%43-=&
P$%!"H-#&8>1-;"%#:2L&N1"!H-&0"&8$&0$&4%>'-&8*%"-
3-&."%"4-&.";:*3-=&>80:=$2&.";:1-&0%:H:3#:2"*-&
82$#:&80$8$B3$8*-&-3&/$3;3$&-.'>B-1-&8*%"*:I/$&
pobudo. 11 &5$4"&*"/*-/"&P1"!8/:&!-1-H:&#:&/!"-
1>&4$B-1"&0$83:!$2"1H:(&i$8*:&2%8*:&I/$*8/-=&
10 Kelly DeVries, Infantry Warfare in the Early Fourteenth Century, Woodbridge 1996,
str. 9–22; Verbruggen 1997, str. 190–194.
11 DeVries 1996, str. 23–48, Verbruggen 1997, str. 194–203.
10 ! V O J A Š K A Z G O D O V I N A
N'"'B3&$;&`$I3%'&':3&)%BF3-&@*F'$%*$BE&7*2O&$;&NF$'E-&"'&)"2-
2$F,IB%2-&]:3%3&:*E&B2*'E&:3"@*1C&83;3"'38&':3&*,38&F1BIE-&F%$EEI$]E&"28&"%6$B%.&W'&#$*238&
':3&I"''13&>ECF:$1$O*F"11C&]311Z6$'*@"'38-&"28&;$%'*-
;*38&*'E31;&*2&"&E'%$2O&83;32E*@3&>$E*'*$2-&>%$'3F'38&IC&
6$$%E&"28&8*'F:3E.&W2&E>*'3&$;&"11&':"'-&6$E'&$;&':3&
observes certainly did not believe that the Flemish
6*1*'*"-& %3F%B*'38& ]*':& $21C& >"%'1C& '%"*238& '$]2E-
632&"28&%B%"1&*2:"I*'"2'E-&]"E&F">"I13&$;&%3E*E'*2O&
':3&F:"%O3&$;&':3&:3"@*1C&"%6$B%38&P%32F:&,2*O:'E-&
who were systematically raised as warriors ever since
':3*%&3"%1C&F:*18:$$8.&g3'-&':3&$>>$E*'3&:">>3238&h&
the badly coordinated French attacks collided with a
':*F,&]"11&$;&P136*E:&E>3"%&>$*2'E-&"28&"&6*2*6B6&$;&
Q-SSS&P%32F:&,2*O:'E&1$E'&':3*%&1*@3E&*2&':"'&'B%6$*1&
$;&I"''13-&]:*F:&%3>%3E32'38&"I$B'&[S&'$&XS&i&$;&':3&
entire noble cavalry that participated in the assault.
5:3&P136*E:&]3%3&@*F'$%*$BE&$@3%&':3&P%32F:-&]:*F:&
astonished the entire Western world. 10
Long-term consequences of the Battle of Courtrai
were more ambiguous. The French king soon gathered
new forces to avenge the great losses and stifle the
%3I311*$2&*2&P1"283%E.&W2&':3&;$11$]*2O&C3"%E-&']$&I"'-
'13E&'$$,&>1"F3&9/%dB3E-&QcSc-&"28&!$2EZ32ZH3@313-&
QcS[=&]*':&6$%3&$%&13EE&B2F3%'"*2&%3EB1'E-&"E&':3&>%3vious
defeat taught the French not to attack frontally
;*%6&;$%6"'*$2E&$;&E>3"%632.&_2&':3&$':3%&:"28-&':3&
Flemish overestimated their capabilities due to their
initial success and finally lost their strategic advantage.
11 & g3'-& ':3& '"F'*FE& $;& ':3& P136*E:& 6*1*'*"& ]3%3&
10 Kelly DeVries, Infantry Warfare in the Early Fourteenth Century, Woodbridge 1996,
pp. 9–22; Verbruggen 1997, pp. 190–194.
11 DeVries 1996, pp. 23–48, Verbruggen 1997, pp. 194–203.

8>1-;"%#:2&8$&3"&=%-B>&4$3&1:*"&ReTk&$4B-1:&
3"0"4:& B%-*"38/-=& 2-*:.$2& -3& #-!& 0%-."4:#"1:&
=>4:&-.'>B:L&1:*"&ReR\&0"&8$&4$8:'1:&I:&2:;#$&
zmago pri Bannockburnu. RV Leta 1311 so v
!$;2-%#>&0%-&%:/-&6:0=-88$8&2&i%;-#-&3:$42-83:&
;:*:&/"*"1$38/-=&3"#:!3-/$2&.&$B%"!B3-!&B$-
#:2"3#:!&0$28:!&>3-;-1:&2$#8/$&"*:38/:'"&2$#vode
Valterja Briennskega. 13 &80:I3:'"&0:=$*3:-
'"& B$#:2"3#"& 2& ':$'%"P8/$& -3& 4%>+B:3$& .:1$&
%".1-;3-=& 4:1-=& F2%$0:& 8$& %".'"1-1-& $!:#-*2:&
viteške konjenice in obrambne sposobnosti
4$B%$& 2$4:3:& 0:=$*:L& 0%:428:!& 0"& $0$.$%-1-&
3"&*$L&4"&8:&0$4$B"&8%:43#:2:I/:'"&2$#8/$2"-
3#"& 0$;"8-L& "& 2.*%"#3$& 80%:!-3#"(& O$& *:4"#& #:&
B$#-I;"& $B21"4$2"1"& *:+/$& $B$%$+:3"& 2-*:I/"&
konjenica in so druge vrste enot ponavadi
$B%"23"2"1-&1:&/$*&0$!$+3:&8-1:(&@&.";:*/>&R\(&
8*(& 0"& #:& 0$8*"1$& #"83$L& 4"& 8:& 1"=/$& >8*%:.3$&
$0%:!1#:3"&0:=$*"&2&'$8*-=&$B%"!B3-=&P$%!"-
H-#"=&3"&>'$43:!&*:%:3>&>80:I3$&>B%"3-&*>4-&
0%:4&3"8/$/-&3"#*:+#:&/$3#:3-H:L&;:&#:&1:&4$2$1#&
disciplinirana in motivirana. To spoznanje je
0%-3:81$& =>4:& 4%>+B:3:& 0%:*%:8:L& 8"#& #:& 0$2sem
omajalo srednjeveške predstave o tridelni
8=:!-&82:*"L&2&/"*:%-&#:&2$#"I/"&21$'"&0%-0"4"1"&
1:&01:!8*2>(&K"#B%+&3-&3"/1#>;#:L&4"&8$&8:&0%2:&
2:;#:& 0:=$*3:& .!"':& .'$4-1:& 0%"2& 2& /%"#-=L&
/#:%&8$&B-1:&4%>+B:3:&"1-&3"H-$3"13:&3"0:*$8*-&
še posebej velike in ni manjkalo volje za boj: v
>%B"3-.-%"3-&N1"34%-#-&!:4&'$80$4"%8/$&!$;-
3-!&-3&>0$%3-!&!:I;"38*2$!L&/-&8:&#:&$*:0"1$&
$B1"8*-&P%"3H$8/:&/%$3:b&3"&Q/$*8/:!&2&$B%"!-
B-&0%:4&3:3:=3-!-&20"4-&"3'1:I/-=&2$#8/b&*:%&
2&Q2-H-L&/#:%&#:&%".2$#&P:24"1-.!"&!$;3$&."$-
8*"#"1L&="B8B>%I/:&$B1"8*3:&*:+3#:&0"&8$&*%;-1:&
$B&3"80%$*$2"3#:&4$!";:'"&0%:B-2"18*2"L&/-&8-&
#:&0%-."4:2"1$&."&3:$42-83$8*(&@&*"/I3-=&%".-
!:%"=&#:&2$#8/$2"3#:&3:-.$'-B3$&0$8*"1$&B$1#&
12 DeVries 1996, str. 49–57, 66–85.
13 DeVries 1996, str. 58–65.
14 DeVries 1996, str. 188–189.
soon copied. Dense formations of Scottish spearmen
on Loudon Hill in 1308 fended off the attack of
English knights and inflicted huge losses upon them.
W2& QcQ[-& ':3C& "F:*3@38& "2& 3@32& O%3"'3%& @*F'$%C& "'&
Bannockburn. QU &W2&':3&6$$%E&$;&':3&%*@3%&73>:*EE$E&
*2&K%33F3&*2&QcQQ-&*283>32832'&F$6>"2*3E&$;&0"'"1"2&
mercenaries won a devastating victory over the army
$;&':3&4B,3&$;&/':32E-&j"1'3%&$;&)%*3223- 13 through
83;32E*@3& F$6I"'.& /& ;3]& C3"%E& 1"'3%-& *2& QcQX-& ':3&
Austrian Duke Leopold led a powerful army consist-
*2O&$;&"'&13"E'&U-SSS&,2*O:'E&'$&N]*'+3%1"28&'$&F%BE:&
"&%3I311*$2.&_2&':3&!$%O"%'32&>"EE-&D3$>$18fE&B2*'E&
;311&*2'$&"&]311Z>%3>"%38&"6IBE:.&5:3&N]*EE-&6"*21C&
1*O:'1CZ"%638& >3"E"2'E-& "''"F,38& ':36& ;%$6& E'33>&
E1$>3E&]*':&%$F,E&"28&1$OE.&5:32-&E]*;'1C&"''"F,*2O-&
they crushed them in a mayhem which only a few
Austrian knights could escape. 14
Almost contemporary examples of infantry combat
in geographically and socially diverse parts of
Europe revealed the limitations of noble cavalry
and defence capabilities of well-led infantry. In par-
'*FB1"%-&':3C&>$*2'38&$B'&':"'&':3&*6"O3&$;&638*3@"1&
]"%;"%3& ]"E& E1$]1C-& C3'& F$2'*2B"11C& F:"2O*2O.& k>&
'$&':"'&'*63-&I"''13;*318E&]3%3&O$@3%238&IC&:3"@*1CZ
"%638&,2*O:'1C&F"@"1%C-&]:3%3"E&$':3%&'C>3E&$;&B2*'E&
were generally reduced to an auxiliary role. At the
beginning of the 14 th &F32'B%C-&*'&I3F"63&3@*832'&':"'&
adequately equipped infantry in dense defensive formations
on favourable terrain was capable of successfully
defending against even the heaviest cavalry
charge as long as it had sufficient discipline and
motivation. This new understanding brought about
E3@3%3&E$F*"1&B>:3"@"1-&E*2F3&*'&F$6>13'31C&E:$$,&':3&
638*3@"1&F$2F3>'&$;&':3&'%*>"%'*'3&]$%18&EF:363-&"Fcording
to which the military role was reserved for
the nobility only. It is probably not a coincidence
that the first major infantry victories occurred in
places where social and national tensions were particularly
high and where a great willingness to fight
was present: in the urbanised Flanders among the
economically strong and rebellious middleclass that
refused to accept the authority of the French crown;
in Scotland when defending against constant attacks
IC&32832F3.&W2&EBF:&F*%FB6E'"2F3E-&]"%;"%3&
12 DeVries 1996, pp. 49–57, 66–85.
13 DeVries 1996, pp. 58–65.
14 DeVries 1996, pp. 188–189.
M I L I T A R Y H I S T O R Y ! 11

*$*"13$L&/$*&#:&B-1$&$B-;"#3$&2&/1"8-;3-&4$B-&2--
8$/:'"&8%:43#:'"&2:/"L&*$&0"&#:&*:%#"1$&-.#:!3$&
2:1-/$& +%*:2& 3"& 8*%"3-& 0$%"+:3H:2(& 5"/%"*3-&
/%$3-8*-& 8$& B%:.& 0%:*-%"2"3#"& 0-8"1-L& 4"& #:& 0%-&
`$>%*%"-#>& 0"4:1& H2:*& P%"3H$8/:'"& 2-*:I*2"& _&
8&RTTT&"1-&2:;&8!%*3-!-&+%*2"!-&8$&0$81:4-H:&
B-*/:&3:0$8%:43$&$B;>*-1:&01:!-I/:&4%>+-3:&2&
28:=&P%"3H$8/-=&4:+:1"=L&/%"1#&N-1-0&X@(&0"&#:&2&
:3:!&43:2>&-.'>B-1&$B;>*:3&-3&*:+/$&3"4$!:-
8*1#-2&4:1&82$#-=&2$#"I/-=&.!$'1#-2$8*-(&5$1-/I3:&
;1$2:I/:&-.'>B:&8$&B-1:&."&01:!8*2$&/$*&-.%".-to
maloštevilen sloj nesprejemljive in so neiz-
$'-B3$& $!"#"1:& 01:!-I/:& 0%:48*"2:& $& 3#-=$2-&
lastni vojaški ekskluzivnosti. 15
Razvoj vojskovanja je v prvi polovici 14.
8*(& 3"/"."1& 3$2:& 8!:%3-H:L& /-& 8$& #-=& 0%"2-13$&
0%:0$.3"1-&+:&3:/"*:%-&8$4$B3-/-(&A$%".-&0%$-
*-& I/$*8/-!& 8>1-;"%#:!& 8$& 0%:0%-;"1-& "3'1:I/:&
2$#8/$2$4#:L&4"&8$&$0>8*-1-&*"/*-/$&P%$3*"13:'"&
/$3#:3-I/:'"& 3"8/$/"& -3& 8$& .";:1-& 0$83:!"*-&
I/$*8/:&$B%"!B3:&P$%!"H-#:&8:8*"21#:3:&-.&*:+-
/$&$B$%$+:3-=&2$#"/$2&-3&2-*:.$2(&5"&/$3H:0*&
3-&B-1&0$28:!&3$2L&2:34"%&8$&'"&E3'1:+-&.";:1-&
8-8*:!"*-;3$&>0$%"B1#"*-&$4&B-*/:&0%-&,$%$>'=-
B%-4':>&1:*"&ReVV( 16 Dodatno so ga okrepili z
3$2-!&:1:!:3*$!L&2:1-/-!-&:3$*"!-&1$/$8*%:1-
H:2L&*:%&*"/$&>8*2"%-1-&.:1$&>;-3/$2-*&8-8*:!L&/-&
#-!&#:&2&0%-=$43#:!&8*$1:*#>&."'$*$2-1&I*:2-13:&
.!"':&3"&Q/$*8/:!L&I:&2:;#:&>80:=:&0"&3"&B$-
#-I;-=&8*$1:*3:&2$#3:&0%$*-&N%"3H$.$!L&/-&8$&8:&
0%:H:#&0$;"83:#:&0%-1"'$4-1-&3"&3$2$L&0%:*:+3$&
4:P:3.-23$&B$#:2"3#:( 17
@&."=$43-&F2%$0-&#:&*:!:1#-*"&2$#"I/"&0%:$-
B%".B"&*%"#"1"&0%-B1-+3$&42:&':3:%"H-#-L&2&X*"1-#-&
in srednji Evropi pa je bil ta proces nekoliko
4%>'";:3& -3& 4:13$& ;"8$23$& ."!"/3#:3L& "& 3:&
."%"4-&0$;"83:'"&I-%#:3#"&."!-81-&"1-&2$#"I/-=&
-3$2"H-#L&/-&8$&8:&2&8%:43#:2:I/:!&82:*>&I-%-1:&
0%:8:3:*1#-2$& =-*%$L& *:!2:;& 0%:428:!& ."%"4-&
%".1-;3-=& 4%>+B:3-=& %".!:%(& @:;#:& 20%"I"3#:&
#:L& "1-& 1"=/$& *:& 80%:!:!B:& $.3";-!$& /$*& %:volucionarne.
18 Ta pridevnik se zdi pretirano
4%"!"*-;:3& ."& 4$'"#"3#:L& /-& #:& _& '1:4"3$& I-%-
I:& _& 2:34"%1:& *%"#"1$& 41#:L& 0$& 4%>'-& 8*%"3-& 0"&
#:& 0%-3:81$& 3:/"*:%:& 3"80%$*>#$;:& 8-& %:.>1*"-
*:(&F2%$08/-&2$#8/$2$4#:&8$&8:&.";:1-&-.$'-B"*-&
$41$;-13-!&B-*/"!L&*:+/$&$B$%$+:3-&/$3#:3-/-&
0"&8$&0$'$8*$&%"#:&%".#"="1-&-3&8:&B$#:2"1-&0:IL&
15" 78,0."F%*8,=/"G//'9"Das Rittertum9"HI44/$+28J"@AAA9"4)8."KKA"4$.L"7>,$,??/"M2')%mine,
War in the Middle Ages, Oxford 1984, str. 255–259.
16 DeVries 1996, str. 86–99; Matthew Strickland – Robert Hardy, The Great Warbow,
Stroud 2005, str. 178–179; Contamine 1984, str. 230–231.
17" 78,0."N)8,=1$%'+"O"5%8+P"QRR!9"4)8."@SQOQB!."
18" 78,0."G//'"@AAA9"4)8."@TQO@TT9"QRQOQRK.
12 ! V O J A Š K A Z G O D O V I N A
inevitably became more total than in the previous
era of the High Middle Ages. That resulted in exceptionally
high casualties on the side of the defeated.
0$2'36>$%"%C&F:%$2*F13%E&]%$'3-&]*':$B'&3a"OO3%"-
'*$2-&':"'&':3&31*'3&$;&':3&P%32F:&,2*O:'E&;311&*2&':3&
)"''13&$;&0$B%'%"*&h&]*':&Q-SSS&$%&6$%3&F"EB"1'*3E-&
noble families in all French states directly felt its
F$2E3dB32F3E.&7*2O&H:*1*>&WG&1$E'&"&F$2E*83%"I13&"28&
hardly replaceable part of his military capabilities.
P$%& ':3& 2$I*1*'C-& ]:*F:& ]"E& E6"11& *2& 2B6I3%-& EBF:&
severe human losses were unacceptable and inevitably
shook the nobility’s conception of their exclusive
right to the military sphere. 15
The development of warfare in the first half of the
14 th century indicated new guidelines which were
already recognised by some contemporaries. The
defeat against Scottish spearmen convinced English
commanders to abandon the tactics of frontal cavalry
charge and to copy Scottish defence formations
composed of heavily-armed soldiers and dismounted
,2*O:'E.&5:*E&F$2F3>'&]"E&2$'&F$6>13'31C&23]-&IB'&':3&
"2&$;&">>%$a*6"'31C&']$&O323%"'*$2E-&
Western Europe witnessed a fundamental military
'%"2E;$%6"'*$2.& g3'-& ':3& E"63& >%$F3EE& *2;1B32F38&
Italy and Central Europe in a different way and at a
different pace. This was not caused by a slower transfer
of ideas and military innovations which spread
"E'$2*E:*2O1C&dB*F,1C-&IB'&]"E&%"':3%&"&%3EB1'&$;&8*;ferent
social circumstances. It is not certain if these
changes can be described as revolutionary. 18 This ad-
#3F'*@3&E336E&'$&I3&'$$&E'%$2O&'$&%3;3%&'$&3@32'E&]:*F:-&
*2& "& I%$"83%& >3%E>3F'*@3-& $FFB%%38& ]*':*2& "& 1$2O3%&
>3%*$8&$;&'*63&"28&I$%3-&F$2@3%E31C-&E$63&F$2'%"8*Ftory
results. European commanders started to avoid
decisive battles; heavily armed cavalry frequently
dismounted from their horses and fought on foot if
the conditions were not suitable for a cavalry charge.
W2&F$2'%"E'-&*2;"2'%C&]"E&>%$;3EE*$2"1*E38&"28-&"E&"&
F$2E3dB32F3-&]"E&%38BF38&*2&2B6I3%&*2&':3&E3F$28&
15 Cf. Maurice Keen, Das Rittertum9"HI44/$+28J"@AAA9"?."KKA"JJ.L"7>,$,??/"M2')%0,'/9"
War in the Middle Ages, Oxford 1984, pp. 255–259.
16 DeVries 1996, pp. 86–99; Matthew Strickland – Robert Hardy, The Great Warbow,
Stroud 2005, pp. 178–179; Contamine 1984, pp. 230–231.
17 Cf. Strickland – Hardy 2005, pp. 182–265.
18 Cf. Keen 1999, pp. 142–144, 202–203.

;:&$/$1-I;-3:&3-8$&B-1:&0%-!:%3:&."&/$3#:3-I/-&
3"8/$/(& A$& 4%>'-& 8*%"3-& 8:& #:& 0:=$*"& I:& -.%"-
.-*:#:&0%$P:8-$3"1-.-%"1"&-3&8:&2&4%>'-&0$1$2-H-&
R\(& 8*(& 0$81:4-;3$& I*:2-1;3$& .!"3#I"1"(& 91"8*-&
lokostrelci in samostrelci so za transport za-
;:1-&!3$+-;3$&>0$%"B1#"*-&/$3#:L&;:0%"2&8$&3"&
B$#-I;>&0%"2-1$!"&I:&2:43$&4:1$2"1-&0:I( RW To
#:& 2$#8/"!& $!$'$;-1$& 2:1-/$& 2:;#$& !$B-13$8*&
-3& 80$8$B3$8*& B1-8/$2-*-=& >4"%$2& 3"& $.:!1#"&
3"80%$*3-/"L&"&=/%"*-&.";"83$&0$2.%$;-1$&0%:-
H:#I3#:&.!"3#I"3#:&/1"8-;3-=&0:=$*3-=&8-1( VT
Najboljši primer takšnega konjeniškega manevrskega
vojskovanja je bila v poznem srednjem
veku gosto poseljena severna Italija.
h:&2:;&8*$1:*-#&8$&#$&0%:*%:8"1-&3:3:=3-&80$0"4-&
!:4&!:8*3-!-&4%+"2"!-&-3&%".1-;3-!-&/$"1-H--
#"!-L&%".0-=$2"1-&8$&#-=&I:&80$%-&!:4&0"0:+-&-3&
nemškimi cesarji. Ti so si vse do konca srednjega
veka poskušali povrniti nadzor nad bogati-
!-& -*"1-#"38/-!-& !:8*3-!-& /$!>3"!-L& ;:0%"2&
*:'"&H-1#"&3-8$&3-/$1-&%:83-;3$&4$8:'1-(&9"%"4-&
3:3:=3-=&'%$+:3#&8$&B-1:&0$*%:B:&0$&-.>%#:3:!&
2$#"I*2>&2:1-/:L&."*$&8$&2&X*"1-#$&0%-="#"1-&*>#-&
3"#:!3-/-L&!:4&/"*:%-!-&8$&28"#&4$&."43#:&;:-
*%*-3:&R\(&8*(&>+-2"1-&3"#2:;&>'1:4"&*:+/$&$B$-
%$+:3-& /$3#:3-/-& -.& 3:!I/-=& $.-%$!"& B1-+3#-=&
"108/-=& 4:+:1( VR & K"& 0$41"'-& 0-83-=& 2-%$2& -3&
8:.3"!$2&-!:3&#:&!$'$;:&>'$*$2-*-L&4"&#:&$4&
1:*"&ReVT&4$&ReST&2&X*"1-#-&4:1$2"1$&28"#&RT(TTT&
najemnikov iz nemškega cesarstva. VV
Da so se nemški vojaki tako dobro znašli na
-*"1-#"38/-=& B$#-I;-=L& 3:& 0%:8:3:;"& 0%:2:;L& ;:&
>0$I*:2"!$L&4"&8$&*"/$&2&X*"1-#-&/$*&2&8%:43#-&
Evropi vojaške operacije še vedno potekale po
2:;-3-& 3"& %"23-& P"#4& "1-& $!:#:3:& 2$#3:L& 2& /"-
*:%-&8$&'-B1#-2:&:3$*:&*:+/$&$B$%$+:3-=&/$3#:-
3-/$2& -3& 8"!$8*%:1H:2& 3"& /$3#-=& 0>8*$I-1:& 0$&
8$2%"+3-=&0$8:8*-=L&1:&%:4/$&0"&8$&8:&."01:*1:&
v dolgotrajna obleganja ali velike bitke. Ve Za
*"/I3$& 2$#8/$2"3#:& 3-& B-1$& 2:1-/-=& 0$*%:B& 0$&
/1"8-;3-&0:=$*-L&*:+/"&/$3#:3-H"&0"&#:&I:&3"0%:#&
$=%"3-1"&0$!:!B3$&21$'$(&6&*:!>&8*"&2:1-/$&
0%-80:2"1"&*>4-&4$!";"&/$3#:3-I/"&*%"4-H-#"&-3&
19 V okviru stoletne vojne je bil ta prehod posebej opazen od šestdesetih let 14. st.,
12"42"U'E$/V,"W%3/$,"'2&%3,),"&"=/$2),"12'-/',(1/"2++/$1/")/V12"2D282V/',>"&2-%12&"
in lokostrelcev. Z njimi so izvajali zlasti hitre udare in roparske vpade kot odgovor
na novo francosko strategijo izmikanja odprtim spopadom in postopnega osvajanja
,WE*D$-/',>"2W/0/$-."F,=>%/$"78/4)X,=>9"Armies and Warfare in the Middle Ages,
New Haven 1996, str. 38–48.
20" 78,0."M2')%0,'/"@AST9"4)8."@KQO@KT.
21" 78,0."M2')%0,'/"@AST9"4)8."@!:O@B@."Y%"?8,0/8"'%-/0',12&"&"4$*VD,"7,4/",'"Z*==/"
gl. Karl Schäfer, Deutsche Ritter und Edelknechte in Italien, III, Im kaiserlichen
und gibelinischen Dienste zu Pisa und Lucca9"7%+/8D28'"@A@T.
22 Maurice Keen (ur.), Medieval Warfare, Oxford 1999, str. 218.
23" 78,0."M2')%0,'/"@AST9"4)8."@B@O@BK.
half of the 14 th century. Archers and crossbowmen
E'"%'38& '$& 6"EE*@31C& BE3& :$%E3E& ;$%& '%"2E>$%'"'*$2-&
"1':$BO:&$2&':3&I"''13;*318-&':3C&E'*11&BEB"11C&;$BO:'&
on foot. QV This allowed armies to increase their mobility
and ability of carrying out swift strikes on en-
36C&'3%%*'$%*3E&"28-&"'&':3&E"63&'*63-&138&'$&"&F$2siderable
reduction of classical infantry forces. US
The best example of such cavalry warfare in the
Late Middle Ages occurred in the densely populated
2$%':&W'"1C.&P$%&E3@3%"1&F32'B%*3E-&W'"1C&]"E&E:",32&
by constant fighting between city-states and various
coalitions which were further ignited by conflicts between
popes and German emperors. The latter tried
to regain control over the rich Italian communes up
'$& ':3& 328& $;& ':3& !*8813& /O3E-& "1':$BO:& ':3C& ]3%3&
never able to achieve this objective. Because of con-
'*2B$BE&':%3"'E-&':3&%3dB*%3632'E&;$%&'%"*238&'%$$>E&
]3%3&O%3"'.&5:3%3;$%3-&;$%3*O2&63%F32"%*3E&F"63&'$&
W'"1C-& "6$2O& ]:$6-& "'& 13"E'& B2'*1& ':3& 1"E'& dB"%'3%&
of the 14 th & F32'B%C-& :3"@*1C& "%638& :$%E3632& ;%$6&
German lands and the nearby alpine region were
highly esteemed. UQ Based on written sources and
2"63&%$11E-&*'&:"E&I332&3E'"I1*E:38&':"'&I3']332&':3&
C3"%E& QcUS& "28& QcRS& "'& 13"E'& QS-SSS& 63%F32"%*3E&
from the German Empire were active in Italy. UU
The reason for this was that German mercenar-
*3E& ;*'& ]311& *2'$& W'"1*"2& I"''13;*318E-& ]:*F:& *E& 2$'& "&
surprise taking into account that military operations
in Italy and Central Europe were still mainly conducted
at the level of feuds or chevauchée in which
units of heavily-armed horsemen and mounted cross-
I$]632&%"@"O38&3236C&3E'"'3E.&_21C&%"%31C&8*8&':3C&
get involved in long-lasting sieges or major battles. Uc
NBF:&]"%;"%3&8*8&2$'&%3dB*%3&F1"EE*F"1&*2;"2'%C-&"28&
heavy cavalry still preserved its important role.
The national cavalry tradition and local breeding
$;&1"%O3&"28&3E>3F*"11C&E'%$2O&:$%E3E-&]:*F:&"'&':"'&
'*63&]3%3&F$2E*83%38&'$&I3&"6$2O&':3&I3E'&*2&3-&
contributed significantly to that. U[ When the hostilities
of the Hundred Years’ War temporarily ended
8B%*2O&':3&'%BF3&$;&':3&QcRSE-&6"2C&9"Armies and Warfare in the
Middle Ages, New Haven 1996, pp. 38–48.
20 Compare Contamine 1984, pp. 132–134.
21 Cf. Contamine 1984, pp. 157–161. For an example of mercenaries in the service of
7,4%"%'+"Z*==%"4//"G%8$"N=>\J/89"Deutsche Ritter und Edelknechte in Italien, III,
Im kaiserlichen und gibelinischen Dienste zu Pisa und Lucca9"7%+/8D28'"@A@T.
22 Maurice Keen (ed.), Medieval Warfare, Oxford 1999, p. 218.
23 Cf. Contamine 1984, pp. 161–163.
24 Ralph H. C. Davis, The Medieval Warhorse, London 1989, p. 64.
M I L I T A R Y H I S T O R Y ! 13

1$/"13$&2.%:#"3#:&2:1-/-=L&0$8:B3$&!$;3-=&B$#-
3-=&/$3#L&/-&8$&2&*-8*:!&$B4$B#>&2:1#"1-&."&:3:&
$4& 3"#B$1#I-=& 2& F2%$0-( V\ & 6$& 8$& 8$2%"+3$8*-& 2&
8*$1:*3-&2$#3-&!:4&0%:!-%#:!&2&I:8*4:8:*-=&1:-
*-=&R\(&8*(&.";"83$&0$3:="1:&-3&8$&3"&#>'&0%-I1-&
-8/"*&."0$81-*:2&I*:2-13-&"3'1:I/-&2:*:%"3-L&8:&#:&
!$%4"& .4:1$L& 4"& B$4$& ."=$43$:2%$08/:& *"/-
*-;3:&-3$2"H-#:&23:81:&'1$B1#:&80%:!:!B:&*>4-&
v italijanski prostor. Vendar se to ni zgodilo.
A%2"&:3$*"&E3'1:+:2&2&A-8-&8:&#:&3"&82$#-&>2$43-&
B$#3-&0%:-./>I3#-&$4%:."1"&81"B$(&E3'1:I/-&1$-
/$8*%:1H-&3"&-*"1-#"38/-=&B$#-I;-=&3-8$&4$8:'"1-&
0$4$B3-=&>80:=$2&/$*&3"&Q/$*8/:!&"1-&2&N%"3-
H-#-&_&0$&:3-&8*%"3-&."*$L&/:%&#-=&#:&B-1$&0%:!"1$&
-3& 0$2:1#3-/-& 3#-=$2:'"& *"/*-;3:'"& 4:1$2"3#"&
3-8$&>8*%:.3$&0$2:."1-&.&4%>'-!-&:3$*"!-L&0$&
4%>'-& 8*%"3-& 0"& #-!& .3";-13$8*-& 2$#8/$2"3#"& 2&
X*"1-#-& *:'"& 3-*-& 3-8$& $!$'$;"1:( VY Uspešneje
je delovala t. i. »bela kompanija« pod povelj-
8*2$!&f$=3"&l"G/G$$4"L&/-&#:&2&81>+B-&-*"1--
#"38/-=&!:8*&$8*"1&*%-&4:8:*1:*#"L&;:0%"2&#:&*>4-&
8"!&2&/"%-:%-&>*%0:1&2:;&0$%".$2(&5$&#:&I:&:3&
.3"/L&4"&-./>I:3#&-.&."=$43$:2%$08/:'"&B$#:vanja
v praksi ni bilo zelo preprosto prenašati
2&/%"#:&.&4%>'";3-!&2$#"I/-!&-.%$;-1$!( VS
!$,&2"+7,-)#Q&$8-+"-$&$1$O+"
Smodnik je v Evropo zašel sredi 13. st. Zdi
8:L&4"&#:&0$8:B3$&."3-!"3#:&2$#"/$2&-3&$%$+"%jev
vzbudil v italijanskem prostoru in prav tam
8$&3"#2:%#:*3:#:&3"8*"1-&0%2-&*$0$2-(&^:&2:%#"-
!:!$& 42$>!3:!>& 0$%$;-1>L& 3"#& B-& $'3#:3$&
$%$+#:& +:& 1:*"& RVZ\& >0$%"B1#"1-& 0%-& $B%"!B-&
N$%1-#"(&A$&B$1#&0%:0%-;1#-2-=&2-%-=&3"#&B-&.&3#-!&
1:*"& ReV\& $B1:'"1-& ):*.L& 3"#0$.3:#:& ;:.& 42:&
1:*-&3"#&B-&'"&-!:1:&2&$B$%$+-*2-&N-%:3H:(&@:1-/$&
B$1#&'$*$2$&0"&#:L&4"&8$&1:*"&ReeR&8&*$03-I*2$!&
3"0"41-&^:4"4L&;:0%"2&$B8*%:1#:2"3#:&3-&-!:1$&
3$B:3:'"&>;-3/"( Vk
Kako je zgodnje topništvo napredovalo na-
4"1#3#-=&YT&1:*L&."%"4-&0$!"3#/"3#"&4$B%-=&2--
%$2&*:+/$&0%:8$#"!$(&M;-*3$&0"&*"&0$*&3-&B-1"&
24 Ralph H. C. Davis, The Medieval Warhorse, London 1989, str. 64.
25 Kot je v pogosto citiranem odlomku o bitki pri Montlheryju l. 1465 ugotavljal burgundski
diplomat Commynes, so bili lokostrelci morda najdragocenejši del pozno-
48/+'-/&/(1,>"&2-419"&/'+%8"$/9"3/"42"'%4)2?%$,"&"+2&2$-"&/$,1/0"()/&,$*."F%->'/"%$,"
8%W?8(/'/"J280%=,-/"$2124)8/$=/&"?%"',42"D,$/"*3,'12&,)/9"4%-"',42"D,$/"4?242D'/"
W%E2)2&,),"W%+24)'/E%"&2$*0'%",W4)8/$12&"'%"18,),3',>")231%>"D2-,(3%."7>,$,??/"+/"
Commynes, Memoiren, Stuttgart 1972, str. 14.
26 Schäfer 1914, str. 23, 29–30; Keen 1999, str. 219.
27" ]8,)W" 72?/$1%9" H,/" 8,))/8$,=>/'" H,/'4)8/&/84/" ,'" +/8" #8%J4=>%J)" #^8W" *'+" +%4"
Aufkommen der Feuerwaffen, v: Mitteilungen des österreichischen Staatsarchivs,
Ergänzungsband II, Festschrift zur Feier des zweihundertjährigen Bestandes des
Haus-, Hof- und Staatsarchivs, I, Wien 1949, str. 511; Contamine 1984, str. 139;
Bert S. Hall, Weapons & Warfare in Renaissance Europe, Baltimore 1997, str. 45;
prim. tudi Bernhard Rathgen, Das Geschütz im Mittelalter, Berlin 1928.
14 ! V O J A Š K A Z G O D O V I N A
tactical innovations would cause more drastic chang-
3E&*2&W'"1C&"E&]311.&g3'-&':"'&8*8&2$'&:">>32.&5:3&;*%E'&
English unit in Pisa performed poorly during its initial
combat ordeal. English archers could not repeat
their success achieved in Scotland and in France on
':3&W'"1*"2&I"''13;*318E.&P*%E'1C-&I3F"BE3&':3C&;$BO:'&
in small numbers and the commanders did not ad-
3dB"'31C&F$6I*23&':3*%&'"F'*FE&]*':&':3&$':3%&B2*'E-&
"28& E3F$281C-& I3F"BE3& ':3& F:"%"F'3%*E'*FE& $;& W'"1*"2&
warfare simply did not permit it. UX The “White
Company” under the command of John Hawkwood
enjoyed greater success. Hawkwood remained in the
E3%@*F3& $;& W'"1*"2& F*'*3E& ;$%& ':%33& 83F"83E-& "1':$BO:&
he himself had suffered several defeats in his career.
This is another sign that the experience in Western
European warfare was not easily transferable to regions
with a different military tradition. UR
A New Factor: Firearms
Gunpowder found its way to Europe in the middle
of the 13 th century. It seems that Italian soldiers and
armourers took a particular interest in this explosive
6*a'B%3& "28-& 6$E'& >%$I"I1C-& *'& ]"E& ':3%3& ':"'& ':3&
first cannons were invented. There is a quite ambiguous
chronicle reference which could be interpreted as
suggesting that firearms were used during the defence
of Forli in QUY[. Some more cogent sources
E'"'3& ':"'& ':3C& ]3%3& BE38& 8B%*2O& ':3& E*3O3& $;& !3'+&
*2& QcU[-& "28& ':"'& ']$& C3"%E& 1"'3%& P1$%32F3lE& ;$%F3E&
E:$B18& :"@3& I332& "%638& ]*':& ':36.& b$]3@3%-& *'& *E&
F3%'"*2-&':"'&0*@*8"13&831&P%*B1*&]"E&"''"F,38&IC&F"2-
2$2&;*%3&*2&QccQ-&3@32&':$BO:&':3&F"22$2"83&8*8&2$'&
have any effects whatsoever. Um
4B3&'$&':3&1"F,&$;&%31*"I13&E$B%F3E-&*'&*E&8*;;*FB1'&'$&
estimate how early artillery developed in the follow-
*2O&;*;'C&C3"%E.&/>>"%32'1C-&':*E&>"':&]"E&2$'&3"EC.&
Reasons why the firearms developed so slowly are
2$'&,2$]2.&H%$I"I1C-&':3&6$E'&*6>$%'"2'&'3F:2*F"1&
obstacle that had to be bridged by medieval gunners
and armourers was not the manufacture of appro-
>%*"'3& ]3">$2E& IB'& ':3& >%$8BF'*$2& $;& OB2>$]83%-&
which was impeded by the high price of saltpetre. An
25 As the Burgundian diplomat Commynes wrote in the frequently quoted passage
describing the battle at Montlhery in 1465, archers were arguably the most valuable
part of late medieval armies, yet only if they were present in sufficiently large
numbers. Small and dispersed formations of archers were less successful as they
were not able to provide the necessary volume of missiles at the critical locations
2'")>/"D%))$/J,/$+."7>,$,??/"+/"M200P'/49"Memoiren, Stuttgart 1972, p. 14.
26 Schäfer 1914, pp. 23, 29–30; Keen 1999, p. 219.
27" ]8,)W" 72?/$1%9" H,/" 8,))/8$,=>/'" H,/'4)8/&/84/" ,'" +/8" #8%J4=>%J)" #^8W" *'+" +%4"
Aufkommen der Feuerwaffen, in: Mitteilungen des österreichischen Staatsarchivs,
Ergänzungsband II, Festschrift zur Feier des zweihundertjährigen Bestandes des
Haus-, Hof- und Staatsarchivs, I, Wien 1949, p. 511; Contamine 1984, pp. 139;
Bert S. Hall, Weapons & Warfare in Renaissance Europe, Baltimore 1997, p. 45; cf.
Bernhard Rathgen, Das Geschütz im Mittelalter, Berlin 1928.

1"=/"(&C".1$'$2&."&0%2$*3$&0$;"83$&%".2-#"3#:&
$'3#:3:'"&$%$+#"&3:&0$.3"!$&4$B%$(&@:%#:*3$&
3"#0$!:!B3:#I"&*:=3-;3"&$2-%"L&/-&8$&#$&!$%"-
1-&0%:!$8*-*-&8%:43#:2:I/-&*$03-;"%#-&-3&$%$+"%-
#-L&3-&B-1"&-.4:1"2"&0%-!:%3:'"&$%$+#"L&*:!2:;&
*:+"23$&0%-4$B-2"3#:&8!$43-/"&."%"4-&4%"':-
'"&8$1-*%"(&9"3-!-2$&-3&0%:!"1$&.3"3$&#:L&4"&
8$&B-1-&0%-&>0$%"B-&.'$43#:'"&$'3#:3:'"&$%$+#"&
najpozneje od konca 50. let 14. st. posebno de-
#"23-&3"#:!3-/-&-.&6$%$I/:&-3&6%"3#8/:&2&81>+B-&
'$%-I/-=& '%$P$2& *:%& "28*%-#8/:'"& 2$#2$4:& C>-
4$1P"&X@(&2&2$#3-&.&$'1:#8/-!&0"*%-"%="*$!( VZ Iz
*-8*:'"&$B4$B#"&3"&0%-!:%&-.2-%"&0$'$4B"L&0$&
/"*:%-& #:& 2$#2$4"& C>4$1P& l:%!"3>& A:G%1:-3>&
$4$B%-1&$4I/$43-3$&2&2-I-3-&\V\&P1(&."&RR&-.'>-
B1#:3-=&*$0$2&93%E'B,&$+.&3%E'B,:= ter 6 konj. VW
X.'>B"& /"%& :3"#8*-=& *$0$2& l:%!"3$2:'"& $4delka
med boji – njegova celotna topniška
$B$%$+-*:2&#:&B-1"&*$%:#&!$%4"&I:&2:1-/$&2:;#"&
_&3"!-'>#:&3"&4$!3:2$L&4"&#:&I1$&."&!"3#I"&
$%$+#"L&8&/"*:%-!-&#:&1"=/$&>0%"21#"1"&+:&!"#=-
3"&8/>0-3"&"1-&H:1$&:3&8"!&!$+( 30
Q:1:&4$&kT(&1:*&R\(&8*(&#:&$'3#:3$&$%$+#:&0$-
8*$03$&0$8*"1$&$B-;"#:3&4:1&$B$%$+-*2:&-3&*:4"#&
#:& 2& N1"34%-#-& 3"8*"1$& 0%2$& 2:1-/$& 8%:4-I;:& ."&
izdelavo topov. 31 &@&.";:*/>&RY(&8*(&8$&3#:'$2:&
.!$'1#-2$8*-&*$1-/$&3"0%:4$2"1:L&4"&#:&0%-&$B1:-
'"3#-=& .";:1$& -.0$4%-2"*-& !:="38/:& !:*"13:&
28" 78,0."72?/$1%"@ATA9"4)8."!RSO!@@."72?/$1%"-/"41$/?%$9"+%"4/",W8%W"Drafgezeug, ki
se pogosto pojavlja v najemniških reverzih, nanaša na podstavek za top. Morda bi
D,$%"D2$-"$2E,3'%"8%W$%E%9"+%")/80,'"&"8/4',=,"?20/',"'/12$,12"$%V-2"&84)2"?$2(3'/E%"
21$/?%9"W'%3,$'2"W%")/V12"12'-/',=2"_Trabgeschirr/Trabharnisch). To bi tudi pojas-
',$29"W%1%-"4/",W8%W"&/+'2"?2-%&$-%"2D"'%&/+D,"12'-9"'/"?%"'*-'2"2E'-/'/E%"282V-%."
78,0."#/28E"Z,/D/9"`/80^E/'44)%'+"*'+"U*48I4)*'E",'"+/'"N)\+)/'"+/4"F,))/lalters,
v: Zeitschrift für historische Waffenkunde, 3 (1902–1905), str. 71; Jacob
Grimm – Wilhelm Grimm, Deutsches Wörterbuch, Leipzig 1854–1960, gesli Trabgeschirr
in Trabharnisch.
29 72")%8,J,"KQ"J$."W%"?24%0/W/'")2?")/8"@Q"J$."W%"&4%1/E%"12'-%.""_*8.b9"Monumenta
historica ducatus Carinthiae, XI, Klagenfurt 1972, listina št. 531, Dunaj, 1359 julij 19.
30" `/8-/)'2"-/"($2"W%"2E'-/'2"282V-/"?2+2D'/"2D$,1/"12)")2?,3",W"Z24>*$)%9"'%-4)%8/-(/"
2>8%'-/'2"2E'-/'2"282V-/"&"c&82?,9"+%),8%'2"&"48/+,'2"@T."4)."d$,)2"-/"D,$2",W"D82'%"4"
41*?'2"+2$V,'2"KR9Q"=09"0%42"A"1E",'"=/&-2"1%$,D8%"2182E"K!"009"1,"4/"?82),"*4)-*"
12',3'2"(,8,."F2E23/"-/9"+%"42"E%"*?28%D$-%$,"12)"823',")2?9"'%4%-/'"'%"$/4/'"+82E"
%$,"?8/?824)2"12?,)29"/'%12"12)"'/12$,12"?2W'/-(,")2?,3",W"e%''/'D/8E%."7/)/8"G8/''9"
Von alten Handfeuerwaffen9"#8%W"@ASA9"4)8."S."H2D82"8/?$,12")2?,3%",W"Z24>*$)%"42"
&"W%+'-,>"$/),>",W+/$%$,"42+/$%&=,"F,++/$%$+/8=/')8/)%"'%"H%'41/0."78/,W1*4,"42"?2-
1%W%$,9"+%"-/")2"'%&,+/W'2"?8,0,),&'2"282V-/")*+,"W"0$/),0"402+',120"?8/4/'/)$-,&2"
*3,'12&,)2."7/)/8"`/00,'E9"Guns and Gunpowder, The Ho Research Group on the
Medieval Centre9" >))?fggXXX.0,++/$%$+/8=/')8/).+1g782-/1)/8gE*'4%'+E*'?2Xder.html
(obiskano 14. 9. 2008).
31 Robert D. Smith, Kelly DeVries, The Artillery of the Dukes of Burgundy, Woodbridge
2005, str. 11–17; Contamine 1984, str. 138 sl., 197–198.
interesting yet not very well-known fact is that some
of the earliest proponents of firearms were the mercenaries
from Carinthia and Carniola in the service of
':3&0$B2'E&$;&K$%*+*"&"28&':3&/BE'%*"2&4B,3&`B8$1;&
IV in the war against the Patriarch of Aquileia at the
end of the 1350s. UY A contract originating from that
time states that Duke Rudolf approved a reimburse-
632'&'$&b3%6"22&H3]%13*2&*2&':3&"6$B2'&$;&[U[&;1&
for 11 lost guns (erstuk or erstukh) and 6 horses. UV
The fact that Hermann’s detachment lost as many
as 11 guns – his entire artillery train may therefore
have been much larger – during combat suggests that
they were smaller weapons that could be handled by
a smaller crew or even by a single man. 30
It was in the 1370s when firearms increasingly
became a standard part of military weaponry.
4B%*2O& ':*E& '*63-& ':3& ;*%E'& 1"%O3& F32'%3& ;$%& 6"2Bfacturing
cannons was established in Flanders. 31 At
the beginning of the 15 th &F32'B%C-&':3&F">"I*1*'*3E&$;&
firearms improved so much that they began to replace
mechanical throwing devices and influence
6*1*'"%C& "%F:*'3F'B%3.& W;& BE38& ">>%$>%*"'31C-& ':3C&
could also considerably contribute to the outcome
of a pitched battle. cU &N*6B1'"23$BE1C-&:"28:318&;*%3arms
gained ground. 33 How far gunpowder made its
way into the manner of thinking of European armies
around 1410 is described in the military manual
$;&0:%*E'*23&83&H*+"2. 34 The technology of firearms
28" MJ."72?/$1%"@ATA9"??."!RSO!@@."72?/$1%"=2'=$*+/+")>%)")>/")/80"Drafgezeug refers
to a gun platform. A more logical explanation would be that this term in reality
signifies a lighter type of plate armour, typical for heavy cavalry (Trabgeschirr/
Trabharnisch). This would also explain why the term always appears in reference
to horses but not necessarily firearms. Cf. Georg Liebe, Vermögensstand und Ausrüstung
in den Städten des Mittelalters, in: Zeitschrift für historische Waffenkunde,
3 (1902–1905), p. 71; Jacob Grimm – Wilhelm Grimm, Deutsches Wörterbuch,
Leipzig 1854–1960, terms Trabgeschirr in Trabharnisch.
29 A gun was priced at 32 fl and a horse cost 12 fl. The relatively high price of
the guns proves that the weapons were very precious. August von Jaksch (ed.),
Monumenta historica ducatus Carinthiae, XI, Klagenfurt 1972, document no. 531,
Vienna, 19 July 1359.
30" 78/4*0%D$P9")>/4/"J,8/%804">%+"%"4,0,$%8"J280"%4")>/"Z24>*$)"E*'9"=2'4,+/8/+")2"
be the oldest preserved firearm in Europe, dating back to the mid-14th century. It
was cast in bronze with a total length of 30.2 cm, weight of 9 kg and a conical bore
with a caliber of approximately 35 mm. It may have been helved on a wooden pole
or a simple butt, similar to the hand gun of a bit later date found at Tannenberg.
7/)/8"G8/''9"Von alten Handfeuerwaffen, Graz 1989, p. 8. A good replica of the Loshult
gun was recently made by the Middelaldercentret in Denmark. Tests showed
that the apparently primitive weapon was surprisingly effective even with ground
_4/8?/'),'/b"E*'?2X+/8."7/)/8"`/00,'E9"Guns and Gunpowder, The Ho Research
Group on the Medieval Centre9">))?fggXXX.0,++/$%$+/8=/')8/).+1g782-/1)/8gE*'sandgunpowder.html
(viewed on 14 September 2008).
31 Robert D. Smith, Kelly DeVries, The Artillery of the Dukes of Burgundy, Woodbridge
2005, pp. 11–17; Contamine 1984, p. 138 ff., 197–198.
32 Smith – DeVries 2005, pp. 27–28, Contamine 1984, p. 146 ff., 193–207. Increasing
firepower was partly the result of higher quality and more powerful gunpowder.
Like numerous other innovations related to firearms, corned gunpowder was
also invented by the Burgundians around 1420. Cf. Hall 1997, p. 68 ff., 88.
33 Hall 1997, p. 95; R. T. W. Kempers, Haquebuts from Dutch Collections, in: The Journal
of the Arms & Armour Society, XI/2 (1983), pp. 56–89; Interesting results of
empirical tests are also presented on the homepage of the Swiss researcher eng.
Ulrich Bretscher, Ulrich Bretscher's Black Powder Page http://www.musketeer.
ch/blackpowder/history.html (viewed on 14 September 2008).
34" M>8,4),'/"+/"7,W%'9"The Book of Deeds of Arms and of Chivalry9"d',&/84,)P"7%81"
1999, pp. 110–111, 116–119, 122–123.
M I L I T A R Y H I S T O R Y ! 15

3"0%"2:&-3&#:&+:&201-2"1$&3"&>*%4B:3$&"%=-*:/-
*>%$L& $B& 0%"2-13-& >0$%"B-& 0"& #:& 1"=/$& 0%:H:#&
prispevalo tudi k izidu bitk. eV Hkrati se je uve-
1#"2-1$&%$;3$&8*%:13$&$%$+#:( 33 &K"&*$L&/"/$&4"1:;&
je okrog leta 1410 smodnik prodrl v miselnost
3"#%".2-*:#I-=& :2%$08/-=& 2$#8/"L& /"+:& 2$#"I/-&
0%-%$;3-/&`=%-8*-3:&4:&A-."3( 34 &@&*-8*:!&;"8>&#:&
*:=3$1$'-#"&$'3#:3:'"&$%$+#"&4$8:'1"&2%=>3:H&
2& 2$#8/"=& -.#:!3$& B$'"*-=& B>%'>348/-=& 2$#-
2$4L& /"*:%-=& *$03-I*2$& #:& B-1$& *"/$& I*:2-1;3$L&
da je marsikaterega manj motiviranega na-
80%$*3-/"&0%:0%-;"1$&/&24"#-&+:&.'$1#&8&82$#$&0$javo.
Burgundci so ga zavestno uporabljali kot
8%:48*2$&."&."8*%"I:2"3#:b&!3$+-;3$&*$03-I/$&
$B8*%:1#:2"3#:& !:8*& -3& >*%4B& /$*& 0%-/".& !$;-&
0"&#:&0$8*"1$&3#-=$2"&0%-1#>B1#:3"&!:*$4"( 35
Q:&%"4-/"13:#I:&*"/*-;3:&3$2$8*-&8$&2&42"#-
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.";:*/>&$4/%-*:'"&>0$%"&1:*"&R\RW&8:&#:&1"=/$&
=>8-*8/-&2$#8/$2$4#"&f"3&h-+/"&$0%1&1:&3"&!"-
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3"&0%:$8*"1-=&0%-2%+:3H:2&0"&3-&-!:1"&3$B:3-=&
B$#3-=&-./>I:3#&3-*-&/"/$2$8*3:&$0%:!:(&@:3-
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+3$8*-& $41-;3$& -./$%-8*-1-& .& 4$B%$& 0%:!-I1#:3$&
*"/*-/$L& /-& #:& B-1"& 8/>0:/& +:& 0%:-./>I:3-=& -3&
3:/"*:%-=&3$2-=&:1:!:3*$2L&.1"8*-&0"&8&0$2:."-
2$&$'3#:3:'"&$%$+#"&2&H:1$2-*&*"/*-;3-&8-8*:!(&
A$8:B3$8*&h-+/$2-=&:3$*&8$&B-1-&2:1-/-&2$.$2-L&
dodatno okrepljeni z deskami in lesenimi nad-
'%"43#"!-L&/-&#-=&#:&B-1$&!$'$;:&3"&B$#-I;>&0$-
2:."*-&2&8/1:3#:3$&2:%-'$&0%:!-;3-=&B>3/:%#:2&
– Wagenburg. Da bi kar najbolje uskladili delo-
2"3#:&28:=&%".0$1$+1#-2-=&2%8*&$%$+#"L&8$&0$8"4-
/:&2$.$2&$0%:!-1-&8&/$!B-3"H-#$&8"!$8*%:1$2L&
%$;3-=&*$0$2L&%".1-;3:'"&$%$+#"&3"&4%$'>L&>0$-
%"B1#"1-&0"&8$&*>4-&0%:H:#&1"+#:'"&*$03-I*2"(&A$-
/%-*-&2$.$2-&-3&2:1-/-&I;-*-&_&0"2:.:&8$&#-=&$41-;-
3$&."2"%$2"1-&0%:4&-.8*%:1/-L&/-&B-&8-H:%&81"BI:&
."2"%$2"3-& 0:=$*-& 2& 8*"*-;3-=& 8:8*"2-=& 1"=/$&
32" N0,)>"O"H/`8,/4"QRR!9"4)8."Q:OQS9"M2')%0,'/"@AST9"4)8."@TB"4$.9"@AKOQR:."72&/-
3/&%'-/"2E'-/'/"023,"-/"D,$2"&4%-"+/$20%"8/W*$)%)"1%12&24)'/-(/E%",'"023'/-(/E%"
402+',1%."72+2D'2"12)"()/&,$'/"+8*E/",'2&%=,-/9"?2&/W%'/"W"2E'-/',0"282V-/09"42"
)*+,"W8'%),"402+',1"&/8-/)'2",W'%($,";*8E*'+=,9",'"4,=/8"2182E"$."@TQR."78,0."5%$$"
1997, str. 68 sl., 88.
33 Hall 1997, str. 95; R. T. W. Kempers, Haquebuts from Dutch Collections, v: The
Journal of the Arms & Armour Society, XI/2 (1983), str. 56–89; Zanimive izsledke
/0?,8,3',>"?8/,W1*42&"?8/+4)%&$-%")*+,"4?$/)'%"4)8%'"(&,=%841/E%"8%W,412&%$=%",'E."
Ulricha Bretscherja, Ulrich Bretscher's Black Powder Page http://www.musketeer.
ch/blackpowder/history.html (obiskano 14. 9. 2008).
34" M>8,4),'/"+/"7,W%'9"The Book of Deeds of Arms and of Chivalry9"d',&/84,)P"7%81"
1999, str. 110–111, 116–119, 122–123.
35 Smith – DeVries 2005, str. 18–19, 113.
16 ! V O J A Š K A Z G O D O V I N A
culminated in the armies of the extraordinarily rich
4B,3E&$;&)B%OB28C-&]:$E3&"%'*113%C&]"E&E$&2B63%ous
that even by its mere appearance it could persuade
a poorly motivated enemy to surrender. The
Burgundians employed it deliberately as a means of
intimidation. Heavy artillery bombardment of cities
and fortifications as a show of force became their
favourite method. 35
More radical tactical innovations were contrib-
B'38& IC& ':3& 0+3F:& bBEE*'3E& *2& ':3& Q[USE.& /'& ':3&
I3O*22*2O&$;&"2&$>32&%3I311*$2&*2&Q[QV&':3&bBEE*'3&
O323%"1&e"2&n*(,"&F$B18&8%"]&$21C&$2&"&E6"11&F$%3&
of trained soldiers. The great majority of the rest
of his followers had neither any combat experience
2$%&O$$8&3dB*>632'.&b$]3@3%-&':3&bBEE*'3E&3a>1$*'38&
their humble military potential by using effective
'"F'*FE-& ]:*F:& %3>%3E32'38& "& F$6I*2"'*$2& $;& '3E'38&
"28& E$63& 23]& 313632'E-& *2& >"%'*FB1"%& ':3& *2'3O%"tion
of firearms within the entire tactical system. A
E>3F*"1*'C&$;&n*(,"fE&B2*'E&]"E&':3&BE3&$;&1"%O3&]"Oons
that were additionally reinforced with planks
and wooden superstructures. They could be joined to
each other and arranged in a chain of mobile bunkers
– the wagenburg. In order to coordinate the op-
3%"'*$2& $;& "11& "@"*1"I13& 'C>3E& $;& ]3">$2E-& F%3]E& *2&
]"O$2E& ]3%3& 3dB*>>38& ]*':& F%$EEI$]E-& :"28& OB2E-&
@"%*$BE& >$13"%6E-& "28& ':3C& "1E$& BE38& "& F$2E*83%able
amount of light artillery. Covered wagons and
large pavise shields offered them excellent protection
against missiles which could have otherwise quickly
inflicted huge losses to less well protected infantry
unit in a static formation. 36 The wagenburg became
"& 6$I*13& ;$%'*;*F"'*$2-& "28& *'E& 83;3283%E& ]3%3& "83quately
armed for close and distant combat. 37
Participants in crusades to Bohemia could not
find appropriate recourse to the Hussite method of
]"%;"%3-& C3'& ':"'& 8*8& 2$'& >%3@32'& ':36& ;%$6& F$>Cing
it. This method of warfare was soon reflected in
Central Europe in the equipment and the hiring of
0+3F:&63%F32"%*3E- 38 and taking over Hussite tactical
35 Smith – DeVries 2005, pp. 18–19, 113.
36 As it had been often demonstrated in the Late Middle Ages, even unarmoured and
relatively poorly trained infantry units armed with long spears and polearms could
fight successfully as long as they remained in defensive formations. On the other
hand, massed infantry was very vulnerable to missiles. That was proved by the English
in battles during the 1330s against Scottish spearmen (the battles of Dupplin
Moor in 1332 and Halidon Hill in 1333). Strickland – Hardy 2005, pp. 182–189.
37 Volker Schmidtchen, Kriegswesen im späten Mittelalter, Weinheim 1990, p. 85 ff.;
Hall 1997, p. 107–114; Contamine 1984, p. 124.
38 Günter Düriegl, Das Wiener Bürgerliche Zeughaus – Die Geschichte einer Waffensammlung,
in: Das Wiener Bürgerliche Zeughaus; Rüstungen und Waffen aus 5
Jahrhunderten (ed. Günter Düriegl, Historisches Museum der Stadt Wien, exhibition
catalogue), Wien 1977, p. 12; Robert Waissenberger, Die wehrhaften Bürger
Wiens, ibid., pp. 22–26; Günter Düriegl, Die wehrhaften Bürger Wiens und ihre
Waffen, in: Wehrhafte Stadt; Das Wiener Bürgerliche Zeughaus im 15. und 16.
Jahrhundert (ed. Günter Düriegl, Historisches Museum der Stadt Wien, exhibition
catalogue), Wien 1986, p. 7.

+:& 2& /%"*/:!& ;"8>& 0%-."4:#"1-& =>4:& -.'>B:( 36
Wagenburg je postal prevozna trdnjava v ma-
1:!L&3#:'$2-&B%"3-1H-&0"&8$&B-1-&0%-!:%3$&$B$-
%$+:3-&."&4:1$2"3#:&$4&B1-.>&-3&4"1:;( 37
c4:1:+:3H-& /%-+"%8/-=& 0$=$4$2& 3"& ^:I/$&
3-8$&3"I1-&0%"2:'"&$4'$2$%"&3"&=>8-*8/-&3";-3&
B$#:2"3#"L&8$&'"&0"&."2:8*3$&0$83:!"1-(&5$&8:&
je v srednji Evropi kmalu odrazilo v opremi
-3&3"#:!"3#>&;:I/-=&2$#"/$2L 38 pa tudi v pre-
2.:!"3#>&=>8-*8/-=&*"/*-;3-=&0%2-3(&@&"28*%-#skem
in ogrskem prostoru se je Wagenburg v
\T(&1:*-=&RY(&8*(&+:&0$28:!&>4$!";-1L&/"%&1"=/$&
ponazorimo z dvema primeroma. Ko so eno-
*:& '%$P$2& `:1#8/-=& !"%H"& R\\R& 0%-& D"!$B$%>&
0$%".-1:& 2:1-/$& !$;3:#I:& ;:*:& 0%-2%+:3H:2&
$'%8/:'"& /%"1#"& @1"4-81"2"& f"'-:1$38/:'"L& 8$&
8:& B:+:;-& $'%8/-& 2$#"/-& ."0%1-& 2& 82$#& *"B$%& -.&
2$.$2L& 0$8*"21#:3& 3"& *:+/$& 0%:=$43:!L& !$-
;2-%3:!& .:!1#-I;>(& 5:4"#& 8:& #:& 3"4"%#:3:!>&
H:1#8/:!>& 0$2:1#3-/>L& ;:I/:!>& 3"#:!3-/>&
f"3>& @-*$2H>L& 0$8%:;-1$& %".B-*-& 8$2%"+3-& WagenburgL&$B&*:!&0"&#:&."#:1&I*:2-13:&>#:*3-/:&-3&
bogat plen. eW Pet let pozneje je ogrska vojska
pod poveljstvom Ivana Hunjadija vdrla prek
Lajte. Zato je Friderik III. novembra 1446 med
.B-%"3#:!&;:*&."&$B%"!B$&82$#-=&4:+:1&3"%$;-1&
'$%3#:"28*%-#8/-!& 0$4"3-/$!L& 3"#& !>& 0%-4:#$&
3"& 0$!$;& m*"/$& 3"& /$3#-=& /$*& 0:IL& .& $/1:0-L&
2$.$2-L&/$3#-L&=%"3$&-3&28:!&4%>'-!L&/"%&8$4-&
k Wagenburgu«. 40
Husitski vplivi so opazni tudi pri obrambi
0%$*-&*>%I/-!&-32".-#"!&8%:4-&RY(&8*(&A$&.";:tnem
delu turškega prodiranja na Balkan ob
/$3H>& R\(& 8*(& -3& =>4:!& 0$%".>& /%-+"%8/:& /$-
"1-H-#:&0%-&K-/$0$1#>&1:*"&ReWS&8$&0%:3$21#:3:&
8-1:& $'%8/:& /%$3:& 0%:H:#& $!-1-1:& *$& '%$+3#$(&
M0".3:#I-&/$%"/&/&2$#"I/-!&%:P$%!"!&#:&2&eT(&
1:*-=&RY(&8*(&0%-80:2"1&H:8"%&D-'-8!>34&.&3$2-!&
36" G2)"4/"-/"&"?2W'/0"48/+'-/0"&/1*"&/318%)"?21%W%$29"-/")*+,"'/21$/?$-/'%",'"8%W-
0/820%"4$%D(/",W*8-/'%"?/>2)%9"2D282V/'%"W"+2$E,0,"4*$,=%0,",'"282V-/0"'%"+82E*9"
$%>12"*4?/('2"D2-'2"+/$2&%$%9"+21$/8"-/"24)%$%"&"E24),"2D8%0D',"J280%=,-,."72"+8*E,"
4)8%',"-/"D,$2")%1('2"0%42"?/(%12&"'%-$%V/"8%WD,),"W",')/'W,&',0"2D4)8/$-/&%'-/0."
78%&")2"42"U'E$/V,"&")8,+/4/),>"$/),>"@T."4)."*E2)2&,$,"&"D,)1%>"?82),"(12)41,0"4*$,-
3%8-/0"_D,)1,"'%"H*??$,'41/0"023&,8-*"$."@KKQ")/8">8,D*"5%$,+2'9"@KKKb."N)8,=1$%'+"
– Hardy 2005, str. 182–189.
37 Volker Schmidtchen, Kriegswesen im späten Mittelalter, Weinheim 1990, str. 85
sl.; Hall 1997, str. 107–114; Contamine 1984, str. 124.
38 Günter Düriegl, Das Wiener Bürgerliche Zeughaus – Die Geschichte einer Waffensammlung,
v: Das Wiener Bürgerliche Zeughaus; Rüstungen und Waffen aus 5 Jahrhunderten
(ur. Günter Düriegl, Historisches Museum der Stadt Wien, r. k.), Wien
1977, str. 12; Robert Waissenberger, Die wehrhaften Bürger Wiens, prav tam, str..
22–26; Günter Düriegl, Die wehrhaften Bürger Wiens und ihre Waffen, Wehrhafte
Stadt; Das Wiener Bürgerliche Zeughaus im 15. und 16. Jahrhundert (ur. Günter
Düriegl, Historisches Museum der Stadt Wien, r. k..), Wien 1986, str. 7.
39 Franz Krones, Die Freien von Saneck und ihre Chronik als Grafen von Cilli, Graz
@SSK9"4)8."@RRO@R@L"h%+%"G$%,i9!"#$%&'!(%)*'!+),&-('!.!$)/),#0!-.)1)!(23%)4!Ljubljana,
Celje, 1991, str. 94–95.
40 Joseph Chmel, Materialien zur österreichischen Geschichte, I/2, Graz 1971, listina
št. LXXXIX, Dunaj, 1446 november 22.
313632'E.&W2&':3&Q[[SE-&':3&]"O32IB%O&"1%3"8C&I3came
a familiar form of fortification in the Austrian
"28& bB2O"%*"2& "%3"-& "E& F"2& I3& *11BE'%"'38& IC& ']$&
3a"6>13E.&j:32&':3&0$B2'E&$;&0*11*&9031#3=-&*2&!"%F:&
Q[[Q-&83;3"'38&':3&6BF:&E'%$2O3%&F$6>"2*3E&$;&':3&
;$11$]3%E&$;&':3&bB2O"%*"2&7*2O&D"8*E1"BE&e"O*311$-&
the fleeing Hungarian soldiers fortified themselves
*2&':3*%&F"6>&]*':&':3*%&]"O$2E-&>$E*'*$238&$2&8*;-
;*FB1'-& E]"6>C& '3%%"*2.& b$]3@3%-& ':3& '"132'38& 0*11*&
F$66"283%-&':3&0+3F:&63%F32"%C&e"2&G*'$@3F-&EBFceeded
to destroy the enemy wagenburg and managed
to take numerous hostages and a rich booty. cV
P*@3& C3"%E& 1"'3%-& ':3& bB2O"%*"2& "%6C& B283%& ':3&
command of Janos Hunyadi invaded Austria across
':3&D3*':".&5:3%3;$%3-&P%383%*F,&WWW-&]:*13&F$113F'*2O&
'%$$>E&;$%&':3&83;32F3&$;&:*E&1"28E&*2&M$@36I3%&Q[[R-&
ordered his Upper-Austrian subjects to assist him “on
:$%E3& $%& $2& ;$$'-& ]*':& "%6$B%& "28& 3dB*>>38& ]*':&
]"O$2E-&:$%E3E-&;$$8&"28&"2C':*2O&31E3&':"'&*E&>"%'&
of a wagenburg”. 40
Hussite influences can be also noticed in the defence
against the Turkish invasions in the middle of
the 15 th &F32'B%C.&/;'3%&':3&*2*'*"1&>:"E3&$;&':3&_''$6"2&
breakthrough to the Balkans at the end of the 14 th
century and the crushing defeat of the crusaders’
F$"1*'*$2&"'&M*F$>$1*E&*2&QcVR-&':3&;$%F3E&$;&':3&%3$%ganised
army of the Hungarian crown considerably
delayed this threat. Emperor Sigismund contributed
a more notable step towards military reforms in the
Q[cSE&]*':&"&23]&83;32F3&$%83%.&W2&Q[cm-&:3&8%$@3&
back a major Turkish attack on Bosnia and Serbia. 41
W2&':3&C3"%E&'$&;$11$]-&':3&1BF,&$;&]"%&$;'32&F:"2O38.&
Although the Hungarian army often experienced defeat
– the worst occurred in 1444 near Varna and
;$B%&C3"%E&1"'3%&*2&7$E$@$&h&':3&"F'*@3&6*1*'"%C&F$6mand
of Janos Hunyadi eventually managed to fortify
the defence of Hungarian borders. [U Hunyadi’s
'%$$>E-&$;'32&%3*2;$%F38&IC&0+3F:&63%F32"%*3E-&'$$,&
39 Franz Krones, Die Freien von Saneck und ihre Chronik als Grafen von Cilli, Graz
@SSK9"??."@RRO@R@L"h%+%"G$%,i9""#$%&'!(%)*'!+),&-('!.!$)/),#0!-.)1)!(23%), Ljubljana,
Celje, 1991, pp. 94–95.
40 Joseph Chmel, Materialien zur österreichischen Geschichte, I/2, Graz 1971, document
no. LXXXIX, Vienna, 22 November 1446.
41" `-/124$%&"G$%,i9"Povjest Hrvata, II/2, Zagreb 1901, pp. 125–126, 140.
42 Keen 1999, p. 207.
M I L I T A R Y H I S T O R Y ! 17

$B%"!B3-!&%:4$!L&1:*"&R\ek&0"&#:&."2%3-1&2:lik
turški napad na Bosno in Srbijo. 41 &@&0%-=$-
43#-=&1:*-=&8:&#:&2$#3"&8%:;"&2:;/%"*&-.!:3#:-
2"1"(&^:0%"2&#:&$'%8/"&2$#8/"&2:;/%"*&>*%0:1"&
0$%".& _& 3"#=>#I"& 1:*"& R\\\& 0%-& @"%3-& -3& I*-%-&
1:*"&0$.3:#:&3"&6$8$2>&_L&#:&4:#"23$&2$#"I/$&
vodstvo Ivana Hunjadija v celoti vendarle utr-
4-1$&$B%"!B$&$'%8/-=&!:#"( \V Hunjadijeve eno-
M%#"I/"&B$!B"%4"&%:4"&X2"3$2H:2&.&C$4$8"L&R\ZT_RYTT(&)"-
8-23$&$%$+#:&/"1-B%"&YZT&!!&#:&1"=/$&-.8*%:1-1$&/"!3-*$&/%$'1$&
.&!"8$&0%-B1-+3$&VST&/'(&
*:L&0$'$8*$&$/%:01#:3:&8&;:I/-!-&3"#:!3-/-L&8$&
0%:2.:1:&I*:2-13:&0%2-3:&=>8-*8/:'"&B$#:2"3#"L&
od Wagenburga&4$&!3$+-;3:&>0$%"B:&%$;3:'"&
8*%:13:'"&$%$+#"&-3&*$03-I*2"(&M'3#:3$&$%$+#:L&
8&/"*:%-!&8$&;:I/-&-3&-*"1-#"38/-&3"#:!3-/-&X2"-
3"&5"1$2H"&1:*"&R\\T&B%"3-1-&,:$'%"4L&#:&B-1$&
*:4"#&3"&B"1/"38/-=&B$#-I;-=&I:&0%:H:#&3:.3"-
3$& -3& #:& /%I;"38/-!& B%"3-1H:!& 28"#& .";"83$&
41" `-/124$%&"G$%,i9"Povjest Hrvata, II/2, Zagreb 1901, str. 125–126, 140.
42 Keen 1999, str. 207.
18 ! V O J A Š K A Z G O D O V I N A
$@3%&2B63%$BE&313632'E&$;&bBEE*'3&]"%;"%3-&;%$6&':3&
wagenburg to increased use of hand-held firearms
and artillery weapons. Hand guns that were used
IC&0+3F:&"28&W'"1*"2&63%F32"%*3E&$;&e$:2&5"11$F*&*2&
1440 during the defense of Belgrade were still rather
unknown on Balkan battlefields and provided the
Christian defenders with a temporary technological
advantage. 43
K*"2'&I$6I"%8&$;&':3&_%83%&$;&N'.&e$:2&$;&`:$83E-&Q[YShQXSS.&
This heavy 580 mm–calibre weapon was capable of firing stone
I"11E&$;&">>%$a.&URS&,O.&
The dynamic increase of the role of artillery in
the middle of the 15 th century did not remain unob-
E3%@38&"6$2O&6$83%2&:*E'$%*"2E-&C3'&*'&*E&2$'&3"EC&
'$&3@"1B"'3.&b$]3@3%-&*'&*E&B28*E>B'38&':"'&;*%3"%6E&
brought in a new dimension to European warfare.
It is difficult to state whether they caused a genuine
revolution at any point of development in the
Middle Ages or completely destroyed the strategic
43"N//"[*2)/+"8/?28)"DP"F,=>%/$"H2*1%4f"G$%,i"@AR@9"?."@:!9"Q@A"JJ.
P$'$TH:$'$L&5$6"(&D"+"%

."'$*"21#"1$&*:=3$1$I/$&0%:43$8*( 43
h-2"=3-& 0$%"8*& 21$':& *$03-I*2"& 8%:4-& RY(&
st. med sodobnimi zgodovinarji ni ostal ne-
$0"+:3L& 2:34"%& '"& 3-& 0%:0%$8*$& $2%:43$*-*-(&
O"& #:& $'3#:3$& $%$+#:& 2& :2%$08/$& 2$#8/$2"3#:&
23:81$& 3$2$& 4-!:3.-#$L& #:& 3:80$%3$(& 5:+/$&
0"&B-&*%4-1-L&4"&#:&3"&/"*:%-&/$1-&*$;/-&%".2$#"&
2& 8%:43#:!& 2:/>& 0$2.%$;-1$& 0%"2$& %:2$1>H--
#$& "1-& 0$28:!& 0$%>I-1$& 8*%"*:I/$& %"23$*:+#:(&
A$4&4$B%-!&0$2:1#8*2$!&#:&1"=/$&0%-0$!$'1$&
/&2:1-/-!&>80:=$!L&"&2:43$&1:&2&!:#"=&%:"1-
3-=&.!$+3$8*-(&6$*&8$&B-1-&$B&/$3H>&8%:43#:'"&
veka prisiljeni spoznati tudi najbolj ambiciozni
21"4"%#-L& #:& I:& *"/$& !3$+-;3"& >0$%"B"& 3"#8$dobnejšega
topništva pogosto odpovedala celo
0%$*-&8*"%:#I-!&*-0$!&>*%4BL&/"4"%&#:&*:&B%"3-1"&
zagrizena in ustrezno pripravljena posadka. 44
F3"/$&."2"#"#$;&#:&"%'>!:3*L&0$&/"*:%:!&3"#&
B-& 8!$43-/& 0$2.%$;-1& ."*$3& ."I;-*3:& $0%:!:(&
6"/$& 3"0";3$& #:& *"/I3$& !3:3#:L& 0$/"+:& +:&
B:+3"& 0%-!:%#"13"& /%$3$1$'-#"J& *$03-I*2$& #:&
0$&4$/"#&0$;"83:!&3"0%:4/>&2&R\(&8*(&0$8*"1$&
2:;#-&4:#"23-/&$/%$'&1:*"&R\VTL&/"%&8:&B$1#&"1-&
!"3#&>#:!"&.&%".2$#:!&-3&-.B$1#I"2"!-&."I;--
*3-=&8%:48*:2(&A1$I;3-&$/1:0&#:&$4&.";:*/"&RY(&
8*(&4$8:':1&3"#2-I#$&*:=3$1$I/$&8*$03#$&%".2$#"&
$/%$'&1:*"&RYTTL&*$4"&3#:'$2&4:1:+&2&$B$%$+-*2-&
8:&#:&0$2:;:2"1&28:&RS(&8*(&-3&I:&8%:4-&*%-4:8:tletne
vojne so bili dobro oklepljeni konjeniki
-3& 0:I"/-& 8*"13-H"& :2%$08/-=& B$#-I;( 45 Po dru-
'-& 8*%"3-& 8$& *:=3-;3:& .!$'1#-2$8*-& $'3#:3:'"&
$%$+#"&$B&/$3H>&8%:43#:'"&2:/"&!$;3$&3"0%:-
4$2"1:L&"&8:&3"*$&$4&8%:4-3:&RS(&8*(&8/$%"#&*%-8*$&
1:*&3-8$&0$!:!B3$&0$2:;"1:( 46
X$-"E&'1"2-+"87&,"#7
@& ST(& -3& kT(& 1:*-=& RY(& 8*(& 8$& 8:& 3"& 2:1-/-=&
:2%$08/-=& 42$%-=& 0$#"2-1-& 0%2-& %:83-& 0$8/>8-&
$B1-/$2"3#"&8*"13-=&2$#"I/-=&:3$*(&A$1:'&N%"3-
H-#:&#:&3"&*:!&0$4%$;#>&0%:43#";-1"&,>%'>34-#"L&
ki je najvišjo stopnjo militarizacije dosegla v
obdobju Karla Drznega. 47 Kako velikopotezno
#:&."43#-&B>%'>348/-&2$#2$4"&3";%*$2"1&2$#"I/:&
$0:%"H-#:L&/"+:&+:&4:#8*2$L&4"&8$&!:4&2$#3-!&
43"#$."=,),8%'2"?2823,$2"F,>%/$%"H*1%4%f"G$%,i"@AR@9"4)8."@:!9"Q@A"4$.
44 Smith – DeVries 2005, str. 26–27, 34–35; Hall 1997, str. 9–10, 45.
45 Za širši pregled gl. Claude Blair, European Armour, London 1958; Guy Laking, A
Record of European Armour and Arms, III, London 1920, str. 209–358; isti avtor, A
Record of European Armour and Arms, IV, London 1921, str. 1–217; Alan Williams,
The Knight and the Blast Furnace9"Z/,+/'"QRRKL"7/)/8"G8/''9"Harnisch und Helm,
Graz 1987.
46" 78,0."5%$$"@AA:9"4)8."S:9"Q@BL"G8/''"@ASA9"4)8.":SO:A.
47 Contamine 1984, str. 165 sl.
equilibrium. Under a good command they could be
BE38&]*':&O%3"'&EBFF3EE-&IB'&$21C&]*':*2&':3&1*6*'E&$;&
their actual capabilities. As some of the most ambitious
rulers were forced to learn at the end of the
!*8813&/O3E-&3@32&6"EE*@3&36>1$C632'&$;&':3&1"'3E'&
artillery often failed even against the older types of
;$%'*;*F"'*$2E& ]:32& ':3E3& ]3%3& 83;32838& IC& +3"1$BE&
and adequately prepared troops. 44 The notion that
gunpowder immediately caused a decline of armour
is equally misleading. As even a cursory comparative
F:%$2$1$OC&E:$]E-&2$':*2O&F$B18&I3&;"%':3%&;%$6&':3&
truth. After relatively slow progress in the 14 th cen-
'B%C-&;*%3"%6E&I3F"63&"&6"#$%&;"F'$%&"%$B28&Q[US-&
which more or less coincides with the development
and improvements of protective gear. From the beginning
of the 15 th &F32'B%C-&>1"'3&"%6$B%&%3"F:38&':3&
highest technological degree of development around
QXSS.& b$]3@3%-& *'E& BE3& >%$>$%'*$2"11C& *2F%3"E38&
throughout the 16 th century. During the Thirty Years’
j"%-&]311Z"%6$B%38&:$%E3632&"28&;$$'E$18*3%E&]3%3&
still commonly employed on European battlefields. 45
_2&':3&$':3%&:"28-&'3F:2*F"1&F">"I*1*'*3E&$;&;*%3"%6E&
"'&':3&328&$;&':3&!*8813&/O3E&*6>%$@38&F$2E*83%"I1C-&
yet did not increase dramatically from the mid-16 th
century onwards for about three hundred years. 46
The End of the Middle Ages
4B%*2O&':3&Q[RSE&"28&':3&Q[mSE-&3"2&%B1ers
attempted for the first time to form standing
"%6*3E.& /1$2O& ]*':& P%"2F3-& ':*E& "%3"& ]"E& 138& IC&
)B%OB28C-&]:*F:&%3"F:38&':3&:*O:3E'&83O%33&$;&6*1*tarisation
during the period of Charles the Bold. 47
How daringly the last duke of Burgundy planned his
military operations is proven by the fact that 700
to 800 wagons were required to transport his artillery
alone during the military campaigns against the
French king in 1465. 48 For his ordonnance companies
– standing units of well-equipped professional
soldiers – he actively developed integrated tactical
;$%6"'*$2E& ]:*F:-& *2& "88*'*$2& '$& "%'*113%C& EB>>$%'-&
*2F1B838&:3"@C&"28&1*O:'&F"@"1%C-&>*,3632-&1$2OI$]-
632-& F%$EEI$]632& "28& :"28OB223%E. [V This com-
>13a& ECE'36& ]"E& ':3$%3'*F"11C& *2@*2F*I13.& b$]3@3%-&
*'&:"8&"&83;*F*32FC&*2&':"'-&"'&"&6*F%$&13@31-&*'&]"E&
44 Smith – DeVries 2005, pp. 26–27, 34–35; Hall 1997, pp. 9–10, 45.
45 For a broader overview see Claude Blair, European Armour, London 1958; Guy
Laking, A Record of European Armour and Arms, III, London 1920, pp. 209–358;
id., A Record of European Armour and Arms, IV, London 1921, pp. 1–217; Alan
Williams, The Knight and the Blast Furnace9"Z/,+/'"QRRKL"7/)/8"G8/''9"Harnisch
und Helm, Graz 1987.
46 Cf. Hall 1997, pp. 87, 216; Krenn 1989, pp. 78–79.
47 Contamine 1984, p. 165 ff.
48 Smith – DeVries 2005, pp. 141–142.
49 Smith – DeVries 2005, pp. 171–173.
M I L I T A R Y H I S T O R Y ! 19

0$=$4$!& 0%$*-& P%"3H$8/:!>& /%"1#>& 1:*"& R\SY&
samo za prevoz njegovega topništva potrebovali
najmanj 700 do 800 voz. 48 Za svoje ordo-
3"3;3:&;:*:&_&8*"13:&:3$*:&4$B%$&$0%:!1#:3-=&
0$/1-H3-=&2$#"/$2&_&0"&#:&0$8:B:#&4:#"23$&%".-
2-#"1& -3*:'%-%"3:& *"/*-;3:& P$%!"H-#:L& /-& 8$& $B&
*$03-I/-& 0$40$%-& 2/1#>;:2"1-& *"/$& *:+/$& /$*&
1"+#$&/$3#:3-H$L&8>1-;"%#:&-3&8*%:1H:L&$B$%$+:3:&
.&4$1'-!-&1$/-L&8"!$8*%:1-&-3&%$;3-!-&*$0$2-( \W
5"&/$!01:/83-&8-8*:!&#:&B-1&28"#&*:$%:*-;3$&2--
4:*-&3:0%:!"'1#-2(&X!:1&0"&#:&*$&0$!"3#/1#-2$8*L&
da je bil zlasti na mikroravni pretirano zaple-
*:3L&/"%&#:&2&%:"13-=&%".!:%"=&3"&B$#-I;>&$2--
%"1$& 0%"2$;"83:& $41$;-*2:& -3& 0%-1"'"#"3#:& 3"&
80%:!:3#:3:&*"/*-;3:&%".!:%:(&
Napredni vojaški stroj Karla Drznega je naj-
%:83:#I$&0%:-./>I3#$&4$;"/"1&2&1:*-=&R\kSUk&2&
80$0"4>&8&I2-H"%8/$&/$3P:4:%"H-#$(&Q2-H"&8:&#:&
2&0$.3:!&8%:43#:!&2:/>&2&I*:2-13-=&0$'1:4-=&
%".1-/$2"1"& $4& 82$#:& 8%:43#::2%$08/:& 8$8:I;-ne.
50 Od zmage pri Morgartnu se je vojaška
$%'"3-."H-#"& I2-H"%8/-=& /"3*$3$2& %".2-#"1"& 2&
82$#:!& %-*!>L& /-& #:& *:+-1& /& 28:& B$1#& -.>%#:3-!&
-3& B%:.=-B3$& 4-8H-01-3-%"3-!& :3$*"!& 0:I"-
/$2L& $B$%$+:3-=& 8& =:1:B"%4"!-L& 42$%$;3-!-&
B$#3-!-&/1"4-2-&-3&4%>'-!&$%$+#:!&3"&4%$'>(&
O"&#:&B-1&*"&%".2$#&3";:13$&4$B%$&."!-I1#:3L&#:&
0$/"."1"&B-*/"&0%-&'-!&=1"43-!&$%$+#:!(&D0$0"4&#:&B-1&4$1'$&
3:$41$;:3L&Q2-H"%#-&8$&3"*$&.!"'"1-&I:1:&8&=>-
4-!-& 3"0$%-(& M0$.$%-1>L& 4"& -!"& 3#-=$2& 3";-3&
2$#8/$2"3#"&*>4-&3:/"*:%:&0$!"3#/1#-2$8*-L&#:&2&
0%2-& 0$1$2-H-& RY(& 8*(& 81:4-1$& 2:;& 0$%".$2(& 91"-
8*-&*-8*-&0%-&E%B:4>&1:*"&R\VV&#:&0$2.%$;-1&/$-
%:3-*:#I:&%:P$%!:&I2-H"%8/:&0:=$*:J&>2:4B$&I:&
'$8*:#I-=L& B$1#& ."0%*-=& P$%!"H-#& -3& 2:;#-& 4:1:+&
4$1'-=&8>1-HL&0$8:B3$&>;-3/$2-*-=&0%$*-&8$2%"-
+3-&/$3#:3-H-L&8&/"*:%-!-&8$&4:13$&3"4$!:8*-1-&
=:1:B"%4:(&c0$%"B$&*:'"&$%$+#"&8$&>%"43$&0$-
>;:2"1-&2&B$%-13-=&I$1"=&_&/$3:H&RY(&8*(&#:&B-1"&
najbolj znana tista v Bernu. YV
48 Smith – DeVries 2005, str. 141–142.
49 Smith – DeVries 2005, str. 171–173.
50 Verbruggen 1997, str. 112–115, 148.
51 DeVries 1996, str. 129–136; Vinzenz Bartlome, Der Laupenkrieg 1339, v: Von Krieg
und Frieden, Bern und die Eidgenossen bis 1800"_*8."7/)/8"a/W$/8"O"7/)/8"F%8),E9"
Bernisches Historisches Musem, r. k.), Bern 2003, str. 16.
52 David Eltis, The Military Revolution in Sixteenth-Century Europe, London 1995,
20 ! V O J A Š K A Z G O D O V I N A
'$$&F$6>1*F"'38-&':BE&:*283%*2O&':3&83F*E*$2Z6",*2O&
process on real-life battlefields and impeding the adaptation
to changes in tactical situation.
The advanced military units of Charles the
Bold faced their biggest ordeal in the conflict with
':3& N]*EE& 0$2;383%"'*$2& *2& Q[mRTmm.& W2& ':3& D"'3&
!*8813&/O3E-&N]*'+3%1"28&83@*"'38&;%$6&*'E&032'%"1Z
European neighbourhood in many respects. 50 Since
':3&@*F'$%C&"'&!$%O"%'32-&':3&6*1*'"%C&$%O"2*+"'*$2&
$;&N]*EE&F"2'$2E&83@31$>38&*2&"&>"%'*FB1"%&8*%3F'*$2-&
toward well-trained and immaculately disciplined
*2;"2'%C& B2*'E& "%638& ]*':& :"1I3%8E-& ']$Z:"2838&
warhammers and other polearms. The fact that
this development was well-conceived was proven
*2&':3&)"''13&*2&D"B>32&*2&QccV-&*2&]:*F:&32F*%F138&
Bernese troops positioned in a triangular defensive
formation first resisted the attacks of enemy infantry
and later cavalry. 51 In the Battle of Sempach in
QcYR-&':3&/BE'%*"2&:3"@C&F"@"1%C&8*E6$B2'38&;%$6&
their horses and confronted the Swiss halberdiers
$2& ;$$'-& ]*':& E:$%'3238& F"@"1%C& 1"2F3E& "28& $':3%&
close-quarters weapons. The confrontation remained
undecided for a long time and the Swiss gained victory
only by making the utmost efforts. The warning
that their method of warfare also had certain
deficiencies was followed by several defeats in the
15 th &F32'B%C.&H"%'*FB1"%1C-&':3&1$E'&I"''13&"'&/%I38$&
*2& Q[UU& %3EB1'38& *2& ':$%$BO:& %3;$%6E& $;& ':3& N]*EE&
*2;"2'%C.&5:3E3&*2F1B838&':3&*2'%$8BF'*$2&$;&832E3%-&
more closed formations and a higher portion of long
>*,3E-&3E>3F*"11C&3;;3F'*@3&"O"*2E'&':3&3236C&F"@"1%C&
with which they partly substituted the halberds. The
employment of these weapons was formally studied
in martial arts schools. At the end of the 15 th &F32'B%C-&
the most renowned one was located in Bern. XU
Until the last quarter of the 15 th &F32'B%C-&':3&N]*EE-&
despite their good military reputation in the wider
3"2&"%3"-&]3%3&2$'&%3F$O2*E38&"E&"&E3%*$BE&>$-
1*'*F"1&>1"C3%.&W2&>"%'*FB1"%-&':3C&F$B18&2$'&I3&F$6pared
to the army and artillery of Burgundy in the
technological sense. Swiss infantry formations came
to the forefront of European military development in
':3& ]"%& "O"*2E'& 0:"%13E& ':3& )$18.& W2& !"%F:& Q[mR-&
':3C& 83;3"'38-& ;$%& ':3& ;*%E'& '*63-& ':3& )B%OB28*"2&
forces at Grandson and inflicted an even bigger defeat
on them in the Battle of Murten. Despite of good
selection of the battlefield and the decision to employ
50 Verbruggen 1997, pp. 112–115, 148.
51 DeVries 1996, pp. 129–136; Vinzenz Bartlome, Der Laupenkrieg 1339, in: Von
Krieg und Frieden, Bern und die Eidgenossen bis 1800"_/+."7/)/8"a/W$/8"O"7/)/8"
Martig, Bernisches Historisches Musem, exhibition catalogue), Bern 2003, p. 16.
52 David Eltis, The Military Revolution in Sixteenth-Century Europe, London 1995, p.
44; Hall 1997, pp. 36–37.

P$'$TH:$'$L&5$6"(&D"+"%
)>.:#8/"&0$8*"2-*:2&2&$%$+"%3-&2&D$1$*=>%3>&0$8/>I"&0$3".$-
%-*-&>%:4-*:2&-3&$0%:!$&I2-H"%8/-=&0:=$*3-=&P$%!"H-#(&M0%:!"&
3"&P$*$'%"P-#-&0$&2:;-3-&-.2-%"&-.&8%:4-3:&RS(&8*(L&2&.:1$&0$4$B3-&
B$#3-&%".0$%:4-*2-&0"&8$&8:&I2-H"%8/-&3"#:!3-/-&B$#:2"1-&+:&2&
poznem 15. st.
O$&."43#:&;:*%*-3:&RY(&8*(&Q2-H"%#-&/1#>B&4$bremu
vojaškemu ugledu v širšem evropskem
0%$8*$%>& I:& 3-8$& 2:1#"1-& ."& %:8:3& 0$1-*-;3-& 4:-
#"23-/L&0%:428:!&0"&*:=3$1$I/$&3-8$&B-1-&0%-merljivi
z burgundsko vojsko in topništvom.
Q2-H"%8/:& 0:=$*3:& P$%!"H-#:& 8$& 8:& 2& $80%:4#:&
evropskega vojaškega razvoja prebile v voj-
3-&0%$*-&6"%1>&O%.3:!>(&)"%H"&R\kS&8$&0%2-;&
porazile burgundske sile pri Grandsonu in jim
#>3-#"& ."4"1:& I:& =>#I-& 0$%".& 0%-& )>%*3>(& ,>%gundski
vojvoda kljub premišljeni izbiri boji-
I;"&-3&$41$;-*2-&."&4:P:3.-23$&*"/*-/$&3-&3"I:1&
sredstva za obrambo pred silovitim napadom
I2-H"%8/-=&0:I"/$2(&5-&8$&B-1-&3"!%:;&*"/$&4$-
B%$&-.>%#:3-L&4"&8$&8:&B-1-&80$8$B3-&H:1$&2&'$8*-&
P"1"3'-&.:1$&=-*%$&0%:!-/"*-&0$&B$#-I;>L&3:&4"&
str. 44; Hall 1997, str. 36–37.
Museum exhibition in the Solothurn armour illustrated the
structure and equipment of Swiss infantry formations. The
equipment in the photograph mainly originates for the middle of
the 16 th century. Yet Swiss mercenaries were already fighting in
a very similar combat formation in the late 15 th century.
83;32E*@3&'"F'*FE-&':3&4B,3&$;&)B%OB28C&8*8&2$'&;*28&
a means with which he could resist the violent attack
of the Swiss infantry. The Swiss were so well-trained
that they were capable of moving swiftly in a dense
phalanx on the battlefield without creating gaps or
weak points in their formation. In this particular
@*3]-&':3&N]*EE&3aF33838&':3*%&"2F*32'&>%383F3EE$%E&
"28&$':3%&E*6*1"%&*2;"2'%C&*2&3-&]:*F:&h&8B3&'$&
manoeuvring problems – mainly operated in defensive
and more static roles. 53 The Swiss gave the Duke
of Burgundy a mortal blow in the Battle of Nancy
in January 1477. The downfall of the Burgundian
military system was symbolically depicted by the fact
that Charles’ body was found after the battle pierced
by spear points and his face was chopped by a halberd
of an unknown Swiss soldier. 54
53 Cf. Eltis 1995, pp. 47–48.
54 Strickland – Hardy 2005, 361–368; Smith – DeVries 2005, pp. 186–200; Vinzenz.
M I L I T A R Y H I S T O R Y ! 21

B-&!:4&'-B"3#:!&2&3#-=$2-&P$%!"H-#-&3"8*"#"1:&
2%.:1-& "1-& I-B/:& *$;/:(& A%"2& 2& *:!&0$'1:4>& 8$&
Q2-H"%#-&0%:8:'1-&82$#:&"3*-;3:&0%:4=$43-/:&-3&
4%>'$& 0$4$B3$& 0:=$*$& 2& F2%$0-L& /-& #:& ."%"4-&
*:+"2&0%-&!"3:2%-%"3#>&4:1$2"1"&0%:*:+3$&4:-
P:3.-23$&-3&B$1#&8*"*-;3$( 53 Tudi obstreljevanje
.:1$&I*:2-1;3:'"&B>%'>348/:'"&*$03-I*2"&0%$*-&
tako gibljivim nasprotnikom ni imelo pravega
>;-3/"(& Q2-H"%8/"& 0:=$*"& #:& B>%'>348/:!>&
vojvodi zadala smrtni udarec v bitki pri Nancyju
januarja 1477. Simbol propada burgundskega
vojaškega sistema je bila najdba Karlo-
2:'"&*%>01"&0$&B-*/-L&0%:B$4:3:'"&8&8>1-;3-!-&
$8*!-(& K#:'$2& $B%".& #:& 0%:8:/"1"& =:1:B"%4"&
neznanega švicarskega vojaka. 54
,$'"*"&B>%'>348/"&."0>I;-3"&#:&*"/$#&0$2-
.%$;-1"&3$2:&2$#3:(&X3*:%:8:&2$#2$4$2:&=;:%:&-3&
4:4-3#:&)"%-#:&#:&."8*$0"1&3#:3&!$+L&="B8B>%I/-&
princ Maksimiljan. Kljub mladosti se je izkazal
/$*&80$8$B:3&2$#8/$2$4#"(&D&P1"!8/-!-&-3&3:!škimi
najemniki – razvpitimi Landsknechti – je
>80:I3$& 0$83:!"1& I2-H"%8/$& 0:=$*3$& *"/*-/$&
-3& 1:*"& R\kW& 0%:0%-;1#-2$& 0%:!"'"1& P%"3H$8/$&
vojsko v bitki pri Guinegatu. 55 Zaposlovali pa
so ga tudi dogodki v srednji Evropi. Tedaj se je
turška ekspanzija usmerila predvsem na osva-
#"3#:& I-B/:#I-=& 4%+"23-=& *2$%B& 3"& ,"1/"3>& -3&
%$0"%8/:&24$%:&0%$*-&8:2:%$."=$4>L&/-&8$&*:+/$&
0%-."4:1-&*>4-&81$2:38/:&4:+:1:(&D*%"*:'-#"&-.;%-
0"2"3#"&#:&0$2.%$;-1"&=>4$&$0>8*$I:3#:&,"1/"-
3"&-3&#>+3:'"&$B%$B#"&3:!I/:'"&H:8"%8*2"(&9"&
>;-3/$2-*$&$B%"!B$&0%:4&%:43-!-&20"4-&#:&B-1$&
*%:B"&%".2-*-&3$2L&0%$+3:#I-&-3&."3:81#-2:#I-&2$jaški
sistem. Ogrski kralj Matija Korvin je za ta
namen svojim silam dodal velike kontingente
=>."%8/:&/$3#:3-H:L&80:H-"1-.-%"3:&."&B$#&8&*>%škimi
roparskimi oddelki. 56 Cesar Maksimiljan
0"& #:& 2& 3$*%"3#:"28*%-#8/-=& 4:+:1"=& 0$80:I-1&
8-8*:!"*-;3:& %:P$%!:& $B%"!B3:& $%'"3-."H-#:&
v smeri stalne vojske s centraliziranim poveljstvom
– k temu so ga navsezadnje vsaj toliko
kot turška nevarnost napeljali burgundski in
."=$43$:2%$08/-&.'1:4-( 57
Turška nevarnost je zares prodrla v širšo
:2%$08/$& ."2:8*& I:1:& $B& 3$2:!& 2"1>& 2:1-/-=&
53" 78,0."c$),4"@AA!9"4)8."T:OTS.
54 Strickland – Hardy 2005, 361–368; Smith – DeVries str. 186–200; Vinzenz Bartlome,
Murten 1476 – die Schicksalsschlacht der jungen Eidgenossenschaft, v:
Von Krieg und Frieden, Bern und die Eidgenossen bis 1800"_*8."7/)/8"a/W$/89"7/)/8"
Martig, Bernisches Historisches Musem, r. k.), Bern 2003, str. 22.
55 Hall 1997, str. 122; Contamine 1984, str. 137.
56 Keen 1999, str. 196, str. 281.
57 Vasko Simoniti, Vojaška organizacija na Slovenskem v 16. stoletju, Ljubljana 1991,
str. 30 sl.; Smith – DeVries 2005, str. 41.
22 ! V O J A Š K A Z G O D O V I N A
The rich Burgundian inheritance instantly became
the cause of new wars. The interests of the
Duke’s daughter and heiress Mary were represented
IC& :3%& :BEI"28-& ':3& b"IEIB%O& >%*2F3& !"a*6*1*"2.&
43E>*'3& :*E& C$B':-& !"a*6*1*"2& >%$@38& :*6E31;& "E& "&
capable commander. With Flemish and German mercenaries
– the notorious Landsknechte – he success-
;B11C&F$>*38&':3&N]*EE&*2;"2'%C&'"F'*FE&"28-&*2&Q[mV-&
heavily defeated the French army in the Battle of
Guinegate. 55 He was also kept busy by the events in
032'%"1&3.&/'&':"'&'*63-&':3&5B%,*E:&3a>"2E*$2&
was directed particularly to conquering the weaker
state formations of the Balkans and raids towards
':3& 2$%':Z3"E'-& ]:*F:& "1E$& E3@3%31C& ";;3F'38& ':3&
Slovenian territory. The strategy of attrition caused
severe devastation to the Balkans and the southern
peripheries of the German empire. For an effective
defence against these constant raids it was neces-
E"%C& '$& 83@31$>& "& 23]-& 6$%3& ;13a*I13& "28& %31*"I13&
6*1*'"%C& ECE'36.& P$%& ':*E& >B%>$E3-& ':3& bB2O"%*"2&
,*2O-&!"'':*"E&0$%@*2BE-&"8838&1"%O3&F$2'*2O32'E&$;&
bBEE"%& F"@"1%C-& E>3F*"1*+38& ;$%& F$6I"'*2O& 5B%,*E:&
raider detachments. 56 The emperor Maximilian accelerated
systematic reforms for the defence organisation
in Inner-Austrian lands aiming at creating a
standing army with a centralised command. He decided
for such a step in response to the threats posed
by the Turks as much as following the Burgundian
and Western European examples. 57
The Turkish threat finally broke through into the
broader European consciousness only with the new
]"@3&$;&_''$6"2&$;;32E*@3E&*2&':3&QXUSE. 58 &E&':3&$21C&3aF3>'*$2&]"E&W'"1C-&
where commanders started to hire the light cavalry
of rambunctious Albanian stradiots by the late 15 th
century. XV & /;'3%& ':3& P%32F:& *2@"E*$2& *2& Q[V[-& W'"1C&
became the main European battlefield where some
of the most significant innovations were introduced.
/16$E'&;$%&"2&32'*%3&O323%"'*$2-&*'&]"E&8$6*2"'38&IC&
the Swiss pikemen who experienced their first decisive
defeat only against the Spanish arquebusiers in
Bartlome, Murten 1476 – die Schicksalsschlacht der jungen Eidgenossenschaft,
in: Von Krieg und Frieden, Bern und die Eidgenossen bis 1800"_/+."7/)/8"a/W$/89"
7/)/8"F%8),E9";/8',4=>/4"5,4)28,4=>/4"F*4/09"/j>,D,),2'"=%)%$2E*/b9";/8'"QRRK9"
p. 22.
55 Hall 1997, p. 122; Contamine 1984, p. 137.
56 Keen 1999, p. 196, p. 281.
57 Vasko Simoniti, Vojaška organizacija na Slovenskem v 16. stoletju, Ljubljana 1991,
p. 30 ff.; Smith – DeVries 2005, p. 41.
58 Rhoads Murphey, Ottoman Warfare 1500–1700, New Brunswick 1999, p. 6 ff.
59 Contamine 1984, pp. 128–129.

*>%I/-=& $P:3.-2& 2& VT(& 1:*-=& RS(& 8*( 58 Pred tem
-./>I3#:&.&B$#-I;&#>'$2.=$43:&F2%$0:&I:&3-8$&
korenito sooblikovale podobe vojskovanja v
B$1#&$44"1#:3-&8$8:I;-3-L&.&4:13$&-.#:!$&X*"1-#:L&
/"!$%&8$&$B&/$3H>&RY(&8*(&.";:1-&>2"+"*-&1"=/$&
/$3#:3-H$& 4-2#-=& "1B"38/-=& 8*%"4-$*$2( YW Prav
-*"1-#"38/-&0%$8*$%&#:&$4&P%"3H$8/:&-32".-#:&1:*"&
R\W\&0$8*"1&$8%:43#:&:2%$08/$&B$#-I;:L&/#:%&8$&
se pojavljale najpomembnejše inovacije. Skoraj
vso generacijo so ga suvereno obvladovali švi-
H"%8/-&0-/:3-%#-L&/-&8$&4$+-2:1-&$41$;-1:3&0$%".&
šele proti španskim arkebuzirjem v bitki pri Bi-
H$HH-&1:*"&RYVV( 60 &O$8:+/-&I2-H"%8/-=&8>1-;"%#:2&
8$&_&4$0$13#:3-&8&8*%:13-!&$%$+#:!&_&I:&3"81:-
43#:&8*$1:*#:&-3&0$1&4$1$;"1-&8!:%3-H:&:2%$08/:-
'"&0:=$*3:'"&2$#8/$2"3#"&*:%&0$8*"2-1-&*:!:1#:&
/$!B-3-%"3-=& :3$*& 8>1-;"%#:2& -3& "%/:B>.-%#:2&
oziroma mušketirjev do tridesetletne vojne. 61
J)5"3#"&,"3%)-"&,&2$()&4$#*)E-)>&,$+7#$,
^:&0$8/>8-!$&."$/%$+-*-&*"&/%"*:/&0%:'1:4L&
>'$*$2-!$L&4"&#:&B-1&2$#"I/-&%".2$#&2&0$.3$8%:-
43#:2:I/-&F2%$0-&."01:*:3&-3&#:&2&%".1-;3-=&%:-
'-#"=&0$'$8*$&0$*:/"1&0$&3:/$1-/$&8"!$82$#-=&
8!:%3-H"=(&@:34"%&1"=/$&2&3#:!&3"#4:!$&*>4-&
8/>03:&*$;/:&_&!$%4"&I:&0$8:B:#&>'$*$2-*:2L&
da je v 14. in 15. st. vojna postala totalnejša
in so jo skoraj povsem obvladovali dobro iz-
>%#:3-&0$/1-H3-&2$#"/-L&/-&3-8$&3>#3$&-.="#"1-&-.&
01:!-I/-=&4%>+-3(&5$&#:&.1"8*-&B$1:;:&$B;>*-1"&
stara plemiško-viteška elita. Svoj nekdanji vo-
#"I/-&0%-!"*&#:&B-1"&0%-8-1#:3"&4:1-*-&.&$B$%$+:-
3-!&8*"3$!&3-+#:'"&%$4>L&/-&8:&3-&2:;&>/1"3#"1&
viteškemu kodeksu. Zato so vsaj iz plemiške
perspektive poznosrednjeveške vojne postale
bolj krvave in bi se marsikdo strinjal z mne-
3#:!L&/-&3"#&B-&'"&1:*"&Reek&-.%".-1&f:"3&4:&,:-
">!$3*J&;:0%"2&8:&#:&B-1$&$B&2-3>&-3&2&+:38/-&
4%>+B-&0%-#:*3$&B"="*-&8&82$#-!-&B$#:23-I/-!-&
vrlinami ter se primerjati z mitološkimi liki iz
#>3"I/-=&:0$2L&B-&8:&3"&0%"2:!&B$#-I;>L&$4%:-
2:3:1&$4&8!%*3:'"&8*%"=>&*-/&0%:4&.";:*/$!&
80$0"4"L&!"%8-/"*:%-&2-*:.&+:1:1&1:&8/%-*-&2&'1$-
B$/$&/1:*L&/#:%&'"&3:&B-&3"I:1&3-=;:a SV
@& *"/-=& $/$1-I;-3"=& #:& 0$8*"1$& 4$B%$& $B-
21"4$2"3#:&B$#:23-I/-=&80%:*3$8*-&I:&3>#3:#I:&
."& 0%:+-2:*#:& 2& 2$#"I/-=& 80$0"4-=(& A1:!-I/:&
58 Rhoads Murphey, Ottoman Warfare 1500–1700, New Brunswick 1999, str. 6 sl.
59 Contamine 1984, str. 128–129.
60 Hall 1997, str. 172–176.
61" 78,0."c$),4"@AA!9"4)8."TT"4$.
62 Verbruggen 1997, str. 42–43.
':3&I"''13&$;&)*F$FF"&*2&QXUU. 60 The achievements of
the Swiss pikemen were – augmented with firearms
– even in the following century and half determining
the guidelines of European infantry warfare and set
the foundation of combined units of pike and shot up
to the end of the Thirty Years’ War. 61
Chivalric Skills in the Era of Professional
Soldiers
W;&]3&'%C&'$&EB66"%*E3&':*E&E:$%'&$@3%@*3]-&*'&]*11&
become evident that the military development in the
late medieval Europe was complex and progressed
E$63]:"'& 8*;;3%32'1C& *2& @"%*$BE& %3O*$2E.& g3'-& ':3%3&
are some common points – particularly the establishment
that war in the 14 th and 15 th century became
more total and that it was almost entirely dominated
by trained professional soldiers who were not
necessarily of noble originbirth. This fact was most
painfully experienced by the old noble-chivalric elite.
Their former military primacy had to be shared with
':3& "%638& 1$]I$%2& F1"EE.& 5:3%3;$%3-& "'& 13"E'& ;%$6&
':3&@*3]&$;&':3&2$I*1*'C-&]"%E&*2&':3&1"'3&!*8813&/O3E&
had become bloodier and we can assume that many
nobles were of the opinion expressed by Jean de
Beaumont in 1337: although it was pleasant to boast
in a woman’s company with ones martial virtues and
F$6>"%3&$23E31;&'$&3>*F&:3%$3E-&6"2C&"&,2*O:'&]$B18&
become paralysed with terror on the real battlefield
even before the beginning of the battle and merely
wished to hide in the deepest cellars where he could
not be found by anyone! RU
k283%&EBF:&F*%FB6E'"2F3E-&O$$8&6"E'3%C&$;&F$6bat
skills was even more essential for survival in
military conflicts. Noble children and future knights
were in former times trained at arms by their own
;"6*1C&"28&"'&;$%3*O2&F$B%'E.&b$]3@3%-&*2&':3&Q[ th cen-
'B%C-&*'&I3F"63&F13"%&':"'&I3E'&%3EB1'E&F$B18&I3&$21C&
assured by systematic and formalised training under
acknowledged and experienced masters. These were
not abundant in Europe. It was therefore essential to
document their combat systems accurately and thus
avoid eventually losing their hard-won knowledge.
The spreading of practical military literature was
probably fostered by the increase of the development
$;&]%*'*2O-&IB'&3@32&6$%3&':3&"F'B"1&2338&;$%&3;;3F'*@3&
martial skills.
60 Hall 1997, pp. 172–176.
61 Cf. Eltis 1995, p. 44 ff.
62 Verbruggen 1997, pp. 42–43.
M I L I T A R Y H I S T O R Y ! 23

Q-%I:&."3-!"3#:&."&>;:3#:&B$%-13-=&2:I;-3&#:&$B&/$3H>&8%:43#:'"&
2:/"&80$4B>4-1$&3"8*"3:/&I$1L&/-&8$&#-=&$B-8/$2"1-&*>4-&1#>4#:&
3-+#:'"&%$4>(&X.8:/&-.&81$2:83:'"&80%:2$4"&H:8"%#"&)"/8-!-1#"3"&
/"+:&8/>0-3$&!:;:2"1H:2&8&*$0-!-&4$1'-!-&!:;-L&3"!:3#:3-!-&
za vadbo.
$*%$/:&-3&B$4$;:&2-*:.:&8$&+:&$4&3:/4"#&>%--
1-&2&%"23"3#>&.&$%$+#:!&2&4%>+-3-&-3&3"&*>#-=&
42$%-=L&*$4"&2&R\(&8*(&#:&$;-*3$&4$.$%:1$&80$-
.3"3#:L&4"&/"/$2$8*3:&%:.>1*"*:&."'$*"21#"&1:&
8-8*:!"*-;:3L&P$%!"1-.-%"3&0$>/&0%-&0%-.3"3-=&
-3& -./>I:3-=& !$#8*%-=(& 5:=& 2& F2%$0-& 3-& B-1$&
2:1-/$L& ."*$& #:& B-1$& 3#-=$2:& B$%-13:& 8-8*:!:&
8!-8:13$&3"*"3;3$&4$/>!:3*-%"*-&-3&*"/$&0%:-
0%:;-*-L& 4"& B-& 8:& *%>4$!"& 0%-4$B1#:3$& .3"3#:&
8;"8$!"&0$%".'>B-1$(&6&I-%#:3#>&0%"/*-;3:&2$jaške
literature je morda nekoliko pripomoglo
801$I3$&0$2:;"3#:&0-83:'"&>8*2"%#"3#"L&I:&2:;&
pa povsem realna potreba po trdnem vojaškem
znanju.
/$,0"5"#
Od konca 14. st. se je v Evropi opazno po-
2:;"1$&I*:2-1$&/3#-+3-=&4:1L&/-&$B%"23"2"#$&B$-
%-13:&2:I;-3:(&9&3#-!-&8$&8%:43#:2:I/:&2$#"I/:&
2:I;-3:& 28*$0-1:& 2& 4$B$& 0-8!:3$8*-L& /"%& /"+:&
0$*%:B$&0$&B$1#&8-8*:!"*-;3:!&-3&P$%!"1-.-%"-
3:!&>%#:3#>(&5$&3:&0%:8:3:;"L&;:&>0$I*:2"!$&
24 ! V O J A Š K A Z G O D O V I N A
A broader interest in learning martial art skills initiated the
establishment of schools at the end of the Middle Ages. These
schools were attended also by lowborn persons. A segment of
the festive procession of the emperor Maximilian shows a group
of swordsmen with blunt long swords intended for training
purposes only.
Summary
From the end of the 14 th & F32'B%C& "28& $2]"%8-&
there was an increase of books dedicated to martial
"%'E& *2& 3.& 5:%$BO:& ':3E3& ]%*''32& 8$FB632'E-&
medieval military skills entered an era of literacy
which proved the need for a more systematical and
formalised training. This should not come as a sur-
>%*E3-&'",*2O&*2'$&"FF$B2'&':3&]*83%&:*E'$%*F"1&F$2text.
From the beginning of the 14 th & F32'B%C-& ':3&
military organisation in the majority of European
F$B2'%*3E& B283%]32'& %31"'*@31C& O%"8B"1-& C3'& ;B28"mental
changes. The heavily armed knightly cav-
"1%C&I3O"2&'$&1$E3&>%3@"132F3-&]:*13&"&6$%3&F32'%"1&
role was assumed by well-organised and adequately
'%"*238& *2;"2'%C& B2*'E-& ]:*F:& ]3%3& 3dB*>>38& ]*':&
various types of pole weapons and which generally
operated in a defensive manner on the battlefield.
A growing number of lowborn soldiers participating
in engagements shocked the almost exclusive control
over warfare exercised by members of the nobility
':%$BO:&"&;3B8"1&:*3%"%F:C.&5:*E-&;*2"11C-&%3EB1'38&*2&
fundamental social changes.

I-%I-&.'$4$2-38/-&/$3*:/8*(&M4&.";:*/"&R\(&8*(&
#:&2$#"I/"&$%'"3-."H-#"&2&2:;-3-&:2%$08/-=&4:-
+:1&4$+-21#"1"&0$8*$03:L&"&*:!:1#-*:&80%:!:!-
B:(&5:+/$&$B$%$+:3"&/$3#:3-H"&2-*:.$2&#:&.";:-
1"&-.'>B1#"*-&0%:21"4$L&8"#&#:&28:&0$!:!B3:#I$&
vlogo dobivala dobro organizirana in ustre-
.3$& -.>%#:3"& 0:=$*"L& $B$%$+:3"& .& %".1-;3-!&
$%$+#:!& 3"& 4%$'>L& /-& #:& 3"& B$#-I;>& 4:1$2"1"&
0$& 2:;-3-& 4:P:3.-23$(& @8:& I-%I"& >4:1:+B"& 2$-
#"/$2&3-+#:'"&%$4>&#:&$!"#"1"&3:/4"3#-&8/$%"#&
!$3$0$13-& 3"4.$%& 3"4& 2$#8/$2"3#:!L& /-& #:& 2&
P:24"13-&=-:%"%=-#-&0%-0"4"1&01:!8*2>L&*$&0"&#:&
3"28:."43#:&0%-2:41$&4$&*:!:1#-*-=&4%>+B:3-=&
sprememb.
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8*-1-& 0$/1-H3-& 3"#:!3-/-L& /-& 8$& 4:1$4"#"1H:!&
."'$*"21#"1-&>;-3/$2-*$&81>+B$&0$1#>B3$&4$1'$L&
28"#&4$/1:%&8$&4$B-2"1-&%:43$&01";-1$(&C".!:-
%$!"&!"#=3:L&'-B1#-2:&3"#:!3-I/:&:3$*:&*:+/$&
$B$%$+:3-=&/$3#:3-/$2&-3&8*%:1H:2&8$&B-1:&.:1$&
0%-!:%3:&."&=-*%:&24$%:L&01:3-18/:&0$=$4:&-3&
4%>':& 2%8*:& $!:#:3:'"& 2$#8/$2"3#"L& .3";-13:&
za pozni srednji vek. Od druge polovice 14. st.
8:&#:&8*$03#:2"1"&*>4-&>0$%"B"&$'3#:3:'"&$%$+-
#"L&80%2"&0%:428:!&$B1:'$2"13:'"&*$03-I*2"(&@&
0%2-&0$1$2-H-&RY(&8*(&#:&2&8%:43#-&F2%$0-&!$;3$&
$4!:2"1& *"/*-;3-& /$3H:0*& ;:I/-=& =>8-*$2L& /-&
#:& *:!:1#-1& 3"& -!0%$2-.-%"3-=& >*%4B"=& -.& 2$-
.$2&*:%&!3$+-;3-&>0$%"B-&1"+#:'"&*$03-I*2"&-3&
%$;3:'"&$'3#:3:'"&$%$+#"(&A%$*-&/$3H>&8*$1:*#"&
8$& 8-& >'1:4& :1-*3-=& :3$*& ."%"4-& -.#:!3:& 4-8H--
01-3:& -3& $41-;3:'"& >%#:3#"& 0%-4$B-1-& I2-H"%8/-&
0:I"/-L&$B$%$+:3-&.1"8*-&8&=:1:B"%4"!-&-3&4$1gimi
sulicami. V tistem obdobju so se pojavili
prvi velikopoteznejši poskusi vzpostavljanja
poklicne redne vojske pod neposrednim vod-
8*2$!&21"4"%#"(&5"&0%$H:8&8:&#:&.";:1&2&N%"3H-#-&
-3&,>%'>34-#-L&/!"1>&."*:!&I:&3"&M'%8/:!&-3&
2&="B8B>%I/-=&4:+:1"=L&/#:%&#:&$%'"3-.-%"3$8*&
zanesljivejšega obrambnega sistema spodbudil
*>4-&*>%I/-&0%$4$%&2&#>'$2.=$43$&F2%$0$(&A%$-
P:8-$3"1-."H-#"& $B$%$+:3:'"& 8*"3>& #:& 0%-3:81"&
4$/$3;:3&0%:1$!&8&P:24"13$&2$#"I/$&>%:4-*2--
#$L&=/%"*-&0"&>8*2"%-1"&0$'$#:&."&>%"43$&0$>;:-
2"3#:&B$%-13-=&2:I;-3&2&8!-81>&8-8*:!"*-;3:'"&
vojaškega urjenja.
The feudal assembly of knights was gradually
replaced by mercenaries who offered their services
to their employers for an indefinitely long period
$;&'*63-&"'&13"E'&"E&1$2O&':3C&%3F3*@38&"&%3OB1"%&E"1-
"%C.& 5:3& %31"'*@31C& E6"11-& ;13a*I13& 63%F32"%C& B2*'E&
of heavily armed horsemen and archers were ap-
>%$>%*"'3&;$%&F$28BF'*2O&%">*8&*2@"E*$2E-&%"*8E&"28&
other types of limited warfare which were typical for
the Late Middle Ages. From the second half of the
14 th &F32'B%C-&':3&BE3&$;&;*%3"%6E&:"8&"1E$&O%"8B"11C&
E>%3"8-&*2*'*"11C&6$E'1C&*2&':3&;$%6&$;&E*3O3&"%'*113%C.&
In the first half of the 15 th &F32'B%C-&':3&'"F'*F"1&F$2-
F3>'&$;&':3&)$:36*"2&bBEE*'3E-&]:*F:&]"E&I"E38&$2&
improvised fortifications made of wagons and the
massive use of light artillery and hand-held fire-
"%6E-& "''%"F'38& ]*83& "''32'*$2& *2& 032'%"1& 3.&
/'& ':3& 328& $;& ':3& F32'B%C-& N]*EE& *2;"2'%C& E$18*3%E-&
"%638& ]*':& :"1I3%8E& "28& >*,3E-& ]$2& O%3"'& %3E>3F'&
as elite units due to their exceptional discipline and
3aF31132'& '%"*2*2O.& W2& ':*E& >3%*$8-& ;*%E'& 1"%O3ZEF"13&
attempts were made to form professional standing
armies under the direct command of the ruler. This
>%$F3EE&I3O"2&*2&P%"2F3&"28&)B%OB28C-&"28&]"E&E$$2&
'%"2E;3%%38& '$& bB2O"%C& "28& b"IEIB%O& F$B2'%*3E-&
where an organisation of a more reliable defence sys-
'36& ]"E& *2*'*"'38& IC& _''$6"2& %"*8E& *2& N$B':Z1"F38&':3&;3B8"1&6*1*'"%C&$%O"2*E"'*$2-&"28&
at the same time established conditions for a formal
teaching of martial arts in the sense of systematic
military training.
M I L I T A R Y H I S T O R Y ! 25

26 ! V O J A Š K A Z G O D O V I N A

U0,*"%"#
9$1)*-"&,"3%)-"&,&4$0-":&'1"2-+":&,"#6
Martial Arts in the Late Middle Ages
^1"3:/& 0$3>#"& 20$'1:4& 2& 8$4$B3:& -3*:%-
0%:*"H-#:& 2-%$2& $& B$%-13-=& -3& B$#3-=& 2:I;-3"=&
:2%$08/:'"& 0$.3:'"& 8%:43#:'"& 2:/"(& E2*$%&
poskuša poudariti vse širšo dostopnost virov
-3& 8$4:1$2"3#:& !:4& %".1-;3-!-& .3"38*2:3-!-&
4-8H-01-3"!-& *:%& 0$4"& -.B$%& 2-%$2L& 4$8*$03-=&
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0$8*"21#"& 20%"I"3#"& $& %".2-*$8*-& 0:4"'$I/-=&
-3&4-4"/*-;3-=&0%-#:!$2&0%-&0%:3"I"3#>&.3"3#"&
ter vzpostavljenem sistemu vadbe. Ustroj prenašanja
znanja in vadbe poskuša opisati kot
0$0$13&8-8*:!&B$%-13-=&2:I;-3L&/-&$B8:'"&P-.-;-
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*"21#"&2.0$3&B$%-13-=&-3&B$#3-=&2:I;-3&0$.3:ga
srednjega veka na višjo stopnjo razvoja in
opazuje nadaljevanje bojne in borilne tradicije
v novi vek.
!"#$%&'( )'*'+',( 2$#3"& .'$4$2-3"L& 8%:43#-&
2:/L& B$%-13:& 2:I;-3:L& $%$+#:L& !>.:#-L& B$#3"&
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T
* #$%+',-.%/+0
samostojni prevajalec
*123456'789'8:::'(2;6'4?@6A=B'C1@6>D5;E62>FGH@6A=DE1@
Abstract
The article offers an insight into modern interpretations
of sources referring to the martial and combat
arts of the Late Middle Ages in Europe. The author
"*6E&'$&E'%3EE&"2&*2F%3"E38&"@"*1"I*1*'C&$;&E$B%F3E-&"E&
well as cooperation between various scientific disciplines.
He also provides a selection of sources which
refer to the martial arts of the Middle Ages in Europe
"28&"%3&"1E$&"@"*1"I13&'$&':3&*2'3%3E'38&1"*F&>BI1*F-&
while at the same time he brings up the issue of the
development of pedagogic and didactical methods in
F"EF"8*2O&':3&,2$]138O3-&"E&]311&"E&$;&':3&3E'"I1*E:38&
system of practice. The structure of the transposition
of knowledge and practice tends to be described as a
F$6>13'3&ECE'36&$;&6"%'*"1&"%'E-&*2F1B8*2O&>:CE*F"1-&
*2'3113F'B"1-&36$'*$2"1-&6$%"1&"28&E$F*"1&"E>3F'E&$;&
instructors and their students. The author describes
the advancement of late medieval martial arts to a
:*O:3%&13@31&$;&83@31$>632'&$2&':3&I"E*E&$;&E$B%F3E-&
as well as the progress of martial tradition into the
Renaissance and Early Modern Era.
Key words:& ]"%& :*E'$%C-& !*8813& /O3E-& 6"%'*"1&
"%'E-& ]3">$2E-& 6BE3B6E-& F$6I"'& 3dB*>632'-& ]"%-
;"%3-&6"2B"1E.&
_@3%&':3&>"E'&83F"83E&]3&:"@3&]*'23EE38&"&%">id
development in the reconstruction of historical
European martial arts 1 which appear in various
;$%6E-&;$%&2B63%$BE&%3"E$2E&"28&"'&8*;;3%32'&>%$;3Esional
levels. The circumstances which have contributed
to the greater popularity of the above mentioned
1 With the term historical European martial and combat arts the author of the article
discusses all arts of handling the arme blanche of all types and purposes, all technique
systems of such combat, as well as a physical and psychological approach
to European martial issues between the Antiquity and the 19 th century.
M I L I T A R Y H I S T O R Y ! 27

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H-#:&/&B$1#&0$0>1-8*-;3:!>L 3 zabavljaškemu ali v
najboljšem primeru športnemu vidiku. Po drugi
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.3"38*2:3-=&0"3$'&7!:4&3#-!-&!:*"1>%'-#:L&B--
$!:="3-/:L&0"*$1$'-#:&-3&*%"2!"*$1$'-#:?( 6 Prek
*:=& 4$'3"3#& 1"=/$& .";3:!$& %".>!:2"*-& 0-83:&
2-%:L&/-&-.%:H3$&'$2$%-#$&$&B$#:2"3#>L&>;:3#>&-3&
2"4B-&B$#:2"3#"&*:%&$&08-=$P-.-;3-&8*%>/*>%-&B$jevnika.
Braveheart (1995), Gladiator (2000), Troy (2004), King Arthur (2004), Kingdom of
Heaven (2005), 300 (2006), Beowulf (2007), nato televizijske serije Xena, Mists of
U&%$2'9"F/8$,'."F/+"8%3*'%$',(1,0,",E8%0,"4)%"+%$/3"'%-D2$-"?8,$-*D$-/',"4/8,-,"e2)%$"
C%8",'"C28$+"2J"C%8=8%J)L"0/+"1'-,V',0,"'%4$2&,"4/8,-%"?8,E2+"'%-/0',1%"U$%)8,4)/-%"
_U8)*82"7l8/W6"+24/E$,"'%-&/3"20/0D"&"?2&/W%&,"4"?8,1%W%',0"
bojevanjem.
K" #$."e20%V"h%D/8E2-"O""%'%$,W%>"%'),3'/E%",'"48/+'-/&/(1/E%"282V-%9"1,"4/"-/"WE2+,$2"S."4/?)/0D8%"
QRRS"&"?824)28,>"h%82+'/E%"0*W/-%"N$2&/',-/9")/8"m`/3/8"D/$,>"821%&,=n"@@."21)2D8%"
2008 v Narodnem muzeju Slovenije v sklopu Delavnice zgodovinskih evropskih bo-
8,$',>"&/(3,'"&"Z-*D$-%',"@@.",'"@Q."21)2D8%"QRRS.
6 Med drugim gl.: Anna Kjellström, A Sixteenth-Century Warrior Grave from Uppsala,
Sweden; The Battle of Good Friday, v: International Journal of Osteoarchaeology,
15/1 (2005), str. 23–50; Tim Sutherland, Battlefield Archaeology; A Guide to
the Archaeology of Conflict, v: British Archaeological Jobs Resource, (November
2005).
28 ! V O J A Š K A Z G O D O V I N A
arts should not ignore (mostly the entertainment
*28BE'%CL& ;*16E-& F$6>B'3%& O"63E-& ;*F'*$2- U various
>BI1*F&3@32'E=.&b$]3@3%-&"'&':3&E"63&'*63&"2&$>*2*$2&
has been formed that these genres themselves have
had a considerable impact on the deviation from professional-historical
methods of reconstruction to a
6$%3&>$>B1*E'- 3 &32'3%'"*2632'-&$%-&':3&13"E'&:"%6;B1-&
"&E>$%'E&"E>3F'.&_2&':3&$':3%&:"28-&':3&83@31$>632'&
of technologies which support the entertainment industry
has enabled several indispensable opportuni-
'*3E& ;$%& >%$;3EE*$2"1& F*%F13E.& W2& E"C*2O& E$-& W& %3;3%& '$&
':3&'3F:2$1$O*3E&$;&>%$F3EE*2O&]%*''32&E$B%F3E-&':3*%&
E'$%"O3-& 8*E'%*IB'*$2& "28& O323%"1& "@"*1"I*1*'C 4 (the
Internet and electronic archiving). With regard to
the availability of written sources or their digital
F$>*3E-&W&2338&'$&632'*$2&':3&F$2E*83%"I13&>%$O%3EE&*2&
I3''3%&'%"2E>"%32FC&$;&6BE3B6&F$113F'*$2E-&"&:*O:3%&
number of programs which make them available to
':3&>BI1*F-&"E&]311&"E&&"FF3EE&'$&F"'"1$OB38&"%'3;"F'E&
and artefacts-related researches 5 by laic individuals.
A development of technologies and the reconstruction
of historical European martial arts provide a
possibility of an overview the history of combat
on European territory which is based on archeo-
1$O*F"1& %3E3"%F:& $;& 6"'3%*"1& E$B%F3E-& "E& ]311& "E& $2&
findings of other scientific disciplines (among oth-
3%E& "1E$& 63'"11B%OC-& I*$63F:"2*FE-& >"':$1$OC& "28&
traumathology) 6 . Through these findings we can
start to understand written sources which specifi-
F"11C&83EF%*I3&F$6I"'-&:$]&'$&"FdB*%3&"28&>%"F'*F3&
;*O:'*2O& E,*11E-& "28& ':3& >ECF:$>:CE*F"1 structure of
a combatant.
2 There has been a notable increase in products which more or less successfully try
to capture the historical tradition. Among numerous products, the following are
worth mentioning: films Excalibur (1981), Braveheart (1995), Gladiator (2000),
Troy (2004), King Arthur (2004), Kingdom of Heaven (2005), 300 (2006), Beowulf
(2007); television series Xena, Mists of Avalon, and Merlin; among computer
games the most popular are the Total War and the World of Warcraft; among books
)>/"4/8,/4"2J"%+&/')*8/4"2J"U$%)8,4)/"_U8)*82"7l8/W6"?8,"'%49",'f"Argo 49/1 (2006), pp. 151–169.
4 In this context I would like to mention the digitalisation of sources, such as digital
libraries SLUB (Sächsische Landesbibliothek – Staats- und Universitätbibliothek
Dresden in Digitalisierung, Nachweis, Bereitstellung im WWW und Langzeitarchivierung
der im deutschen Sprachgebiet Erschienenen Drucke des 16. Jahrhunderts
(1518–1600) der Bayerischen Staatsbibliothek).
5 A good example of such contact is a lecture by dr. Alan Williams on metallographic
analysis of ancient and medieval weapons which took place on 8 September in the
h%),2'%$"F*4/*0"2J"N$2&/',%9"%4"X/$$"%4"o`/3/8"D/$,>"821%&,=o"_e>/"c&/','E"2J"C>,)/"
Gloves) which took place on 11 October 2008 in the National Museum of Slovenia
within the scope of the ‘Workshop of historical European martial arts’ in Ljubljana
from 11 to 12 October 2008.
6 See also: Anna Kjellström, A Sixteenth-Century Warrior Grave from Uppsala, Sweden;
The Battle of Good Friday, in: International Journal of Osteoarchaeology, 15/1
(2005), pp. 23–50; Tim Sutherland, Battlefield Archaeology; A Guide to the Archaeology
of Conflict, in: British Archaeological Jobs Resource, (November 2005).

^:0%"2& 8:& *"& 0%-80:2:/& $!:#>#:& 3"& B$%-13:&
2:I;-3:& :2%$08/:'"& 0$.3:'"& 8%:43#:'"& 2:/"&
-3&3"&0-83:&2-%:&$&*:=&2:I;-3"=L&3:&42-'>#:&0"&
se na raven obravnave srednjeveške vojaške
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srednjeveško obdobje v vojaškem oziru primer-
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/>1*>%3-=& -3& 2$#"I/-=& *%"4-H-#& 8/$.-& 8*$1:*#"&
srednjeveške Evrope. Vendar viri in sodobne
%".-8/"2:&4"3:8&/"+:#$&4%>'";3$&81-/$L&-3&8-H:%&
*$L& 4"& 8$& B-1:& 8%:43#:2:I/:& 2$#"I/:& .!$+3$8*-&
80$8$B3:& 4"1#3$8:+3-=& 8*%"*:'-#L& B$#3-=& *"/*-/&
-3& 0%-!:%3:'"& 08-=$P-.-;3:'"& >8*%$#"& 8%:43#:-
2:I/:'"&2$#I;"/"L&/-&8:&#:&."2:4"1&0$!:3"&P--
.-;3:& .!$'1#-2$8*-& -3& *:$%:*-;3-=& .3"3#(& 9:1$&
%$!"3*-;3"&"1-&0%:2:;&0$4H:3#>#$;"&$H:3"&8%:-
43#:2:I/:'"&B$#:2"3#"&.'$4$2-3$0-8H:2&RW(&8*(&
-!"&I:&4"3:8&!$;3$&0$.-H-#$&2&3"I-&$B%"23"2-&
$!:3#:3:&4:#"23$8*-L&/"%&3-&$0".3$&1:&2&0%:2:likem
dometu izdelkov zabavne industrije ter
3#-=$2-=& 201-2$2& 3"& %:/$38*%>/H-#$& .'$4$2-3-
8/-=&:2%$08/-=&B$%-13-=&-3&B$#3-=&2:I;-3L&*:!-
2:;& *>4-& 2& 8*%$/$23-=& /%$'-=(& K:/$%:/*3$& -3&
/%-2-;3$&B-&B-1$&2&*:!&0%-80:2/>&/"."*-&8&0%8*$!&
3"&0$8"!-;3:&0%-!:%:L&8"#&."&/"#&*"/:'"&"2*$%&
3-&3:&0%-8*$#:3&3-*-&*$&3-&3"!:3&0%-80:2/"L&2:lja
pa omeniti prepogosto poenostavljanje pri
-3*:%0%:*"H-#-&!"*:%-"13-=&"%*:P"/*$2&"1-&0-83-=&
virov.
V zagovor vojaški sposobnosti evropske-
'"& 0$.3:'"& 8%:43#:'"& 2:/"& 1"=/$& 3"2:4:!$&
!3$+-H$& 0%-!:%/$2& >0$%"B3:& B$#3:& $0%:!:&
:" 7>,$,??/"M2')%0,'/9"War in the Middle Ages, Oxford 1998, str. 208.
8 »They have thus drawn the conclusion that there is practically nothing to be
gathered or learnt from the study of medieval campaigns, battles or sieges. In
short, as far as war is concerned, just as with the history of philosophic thought,
between Antiquity and the Renaissance there is a thousand-year gap.«."78%&")%0.
Although this article limits itself to the martial
arts of the European Late Middle Ages and the sources
on these arts while not addressing medieval mili-
'"%C&:*E'$%C-&*'&2338E&'$&632'*$2&&"'&13"E'&':3&E'"%'*2O&
>$*2'& & ]:*F:& %3EB1'& *2-& $%& "'& 13"E'-& 8*8& %3EB1'& *2-& "&
modern approach to the reconstruction of these arts.
Philippe Contamine describes a tendency of the first
military historians of the Modern Age to compare the
!*8813&/O3E-&*2&6*1*'"%C&"E>3F'-&'$&':3&/2'*dB*'C&$%&
to the Modern Age. Very rarely do we come across
an exception which does not use negative adjectives
]:32&83EF%*I*2O&638*3@"1&F$6I"'-&EBF:&"EL&@3%C&63-
8*$F%3-&B283@31$>38-&3@32&2$2Z3a*E'*2O&"E&"&>1"2238-&
$%O"2*+38&8*EF*>1*23. 7 Several of these historians were
active or retired military officers whose thinking was
based on their own military knowledge and experience
which they then compared to sources on medieval
military engagements 8 .&b$]3@3%-&':3&>%*2F*>13E-&
structure and operations of the British Imperial mili-
'"%C&;$%F3E-&;$%&3a"6>13-&F"22$'&I3&F$6>"%38&'$&;3B-
8"1&"%6*3E&I31$2O*2O&'$&8*;;3%32'&3F$2$6*F-&FB1'B%"1&
and military traditions throughout several hundreds
$;&C3"%E&$;&638*3@"1&3.&M3@3%':313EE-&':3&E$B%F3E&
and modern researches today present a different pic-
'B%3-&]:*F:&*E-&':"'&638*3@"1&6*1*'"%C&F">"F*'*3E&]3%3&
F">"I13& $;& ;"%Z%3"F:*2O& E'%"'3O*3E-& F$6I"'& '"F'*FE&
and an appropriate psychophysical constitution of a
medieval warrior who was aware of the importance
of physical capabilities and theoretical knowledge. A
very romantic or underestimating evaluation of me-
8*3@"1&]"%;"%3-&6"83&IC&QV th &F32'B%C&:*E'$%*"2E-&E'*11&
maintains a very strong impact on our perception of
this activity. This can be observed not only in a long
%3"F:& $;& >%$8BF'E-& O323%"'38& IC& ':3& 32'3%'"*2632'&
*28BE'%C-&"28&':3*%&*2;1B32F3&$2&':3&%3F$2E'%BF'*$2&
$;&:*E'$%*F"1&3"2&6"%'*"1&"%'E-&IB'&"1E$&]*':*2&
professional circles. It would be incorrect and unfair
'$&>$*2'&$B'&*28*@*8B"1&F"E3E&*2&':*E&F$2'3a'-&E*2F3&':3&
"B':$%&*E&23*':3%&F$6>3'32'&'$&8$&E$-&2$%&*E&':*E&':3&
*2'32'*$2&$;&':*E&"%'*F13.&b$]3@3%-&]$%':&632'*$2*2O&
is the fact that too often we resort to simplified interpretations
of material artefacts or written sources.
In defense of European late medieval military capabilities
we can state a number of examples of use-
;B1& 3dB*>632'& "28& ]3">$2E-& $;& ]:*F:& 6"2C& >*3F3E&
8$&&"E'$2*E:&BE-&2$'&$21C&8B3&'$&':3*%&:*O:&dB"1*'C&
"28&"%'*E'*F&@"1B3-&IB'&"1E$&8B3&'$&':3*%&$%*O*2"1*'C-&
>%"O6"'*E6-& "E& ]311& "E& 3aF31132'& B283%E'"28*2O& $;&
:" 7>,$,??/"M2')%0,'/9"War in the Middle Ages, Oxford 1998, p. 208.
8 'They have thus drawn the conclusion that there is practically nothing to be gathered
or learnt from the study of medieval campaigns, battles or sieges. In short, as
far as war is concerned, just as with the history of philosophic thought, between
Antiquity and the Renaissance there is a thousand-year gap.' I bid.
M I L I T A R Y H I S T O R Y ! 29

N$*$UPhoto: Matej Smrekar
@>;"#3/&74:83$?&8:&80>I;"&2&8*"2&m01>'n(&
N$*$UPhoto: Matej Smrekar D:B"8*#"3&

-3&$%$+#"L&$4&/"*:%-=&3"8&!"%8-/"*:%-&"%*:P"/*&
osupne ne le zaradi visoke stopnje izdelave in
>!:*3-I/:&2%:43$8*-L&*:!2:;&*>4-&."%"4-&4$!--
8:13$8*-L& 0%"'!"*-;3$8*-& -3& $41-;3:'"& 0$.3"-
2"3#"&B$#3-=&$/$1-I;-3(&A$1:'&.:1$&/"/$2$8*3-=&
0$8"!-;3-=&/$8$2&B$#3:&$0%:!:L&/-&8/$%"#&28-&
0%-0"4"#$& 3"#2-I#-!& 4%>+B:3-!& 81$#:!& 7*$%:#&
*>4-& 3"#2-I#-!& 2$#"I/-!& 0$1$+"#:!?L& 0"& !$%"-
!$& >0$I*:2"*-& *>4-& 2$#"I/:& m!3$+-H:nL& 8-H:%&
=-*%$&0%-2."!:!$&%"23$/"%&/%-*-.-%"3-&0$'1:4&
na srednjeveško vojaško delovanje kot na zmes
42$B$#:2&!:4&2$#I;"/-&0%-!:%1#-2:'"&8*"3>&3"&
B$#3:!& 0$1#>(& )"3#& /"/$2$8*3"L& "& I:& 2:43$&
>;-3/$2-*"& $0%:!"& -3& $%$+#:& 3"!& 2& 82$#-& %"-
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3$8*&-3&!"8$(&5$&$0%:!$&-3&$%$+#:&#:&B-1$&*%:-
B"&.3"*-&>0$%"B-*-(&l"38&O:1B%dH/L&8-H:%&:4:3&
$4&."'$2$%3-/$2&!3:3#"L&4"&2&8%:43#:2:I/:!&
bojevanju ni iskati visoko razvite strategije in
2$#"I/-=&8*%>/*>%L&/-&B-&0%-!:%1#-2$&8&8$4$B3-!-&
4:1$2"1:& 2& 8*%"*:I/-=& -3& *"/*-;3-=& $/2-%-=L& 3:&
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R\eRL&/$&#:&2$#2$4"&E1B%:=*&@(&."&0$*%:B:&2$#3:&
0%$*-& =>8-*$!& 3"& $.:!1#-=& 0$4& 82$#$& $B1"8*#$&
ukazal zbrati vse za vojaško delovanje sposob-
3:&!$I/:L&8*"%:&$4&I:8*3"#8*&4$&8:4:!4:8:*&1:*(&
D:.3"!&28:B>#:&0$4"*/:&$&$B$%$+-*2-&3"B%"3-=&
:3$*J&2&28"/-&8/>0-3-&42"#8:*-=&!$+&8$&!$%"1-&
B-*-&*%-#:&$B$%$+:3-&.&%$;3-!&*$0$!L&$8:!&8&8"-
!$8*%:1$!L&I*-%#:&8&8>1-H$L&I*-%#:&.&B$#3-!-&H:0-
H-L&28-&8$&!$%"1-&-!:*-&+:1:.3$&;:1"4$L&$/1:0&"1-&
0%:I-*-&#$0-;L&/$2-38/:&%$/"2-H:&*:%&!:;&"1-&3$+&
oz. messer. Vsaka dvajsetnija je imela tudi svoj
voz. W &D1-/"&$&3:>/-=&/!:*-=L&$B$%$+:3-=&.&$!:-
3#:3-!&$%$+#:!L&*$%:#&B$1#&!:#-&3"&/"%-/"*>%:L&
/-&8!$&#-=&2"#:3-&-.&$B4$B#"&1"348/3:=*$2&RS(&
8*$1:*#"L&/$*&0"&>*:!:1#:3:&.'$4$2-38/:&%".1"ge.
C:8&#:L&4"&8$&=>8-*-&8&82$#$&-3$2"*-23$&*"/*-/$L&
/-&#:&2/1#>;:2"1"&>0$%"B$&0%-1"'$#:3:'"&/!:;-
/:'"& $%$4#"L& >80:I3$& 0%:!"'$2"1-& 3"80%$*3--
/:L&"&*$&4:#8*2$&3:&4"#:&4$2$1#&*:+:&%".1"'-L&/-&
8:&3:&B-&0$'1$B-1"&2&!$+3$8*L&4"&8$&3"B$%3-/:&
>%-1-&2&%"23"3#>&.&$%$+#:!L&."&/"*:%:'"&8$&B-1-&
."4$1+:3-L&*$%:#&4"&#:&!$%"1&$B8*"#"*-&8-8*:!&4$-
1$;:3:'"&3"B$%"&B$#3-=&*:=3-/L&>;:3#"&-3&2"4-
B:&*:=&*:=3-/&-3&0%-2"#"3#"&3"&B$#3:&$/$1-I;-3:(&
D-H:%&B-&8:&2$#"I/-&/"4%$23-/-&!-%3$&1"=/$&$4-
%:/1-&8*%$I/$!&."&8*%:13$&$%$+#:L&8>1-H:L&!:;:&
9 Hans Delbrück, Medieval Warfare, Lincoln 1990, str. 448–449.
combat circumstances. Apart from the high quality
*28*@*8B"1& >*3F3E& $;& ;*O:'*2O& 3dB*>632'-& ]:*F:& "1most
all belonged to upper social classes (therefore
to those in upper military positions) we must also
F$2E*83%&6*1*'"%C&f:$E'Ef.&W;&2$'-&]3&"88%3EE&':3&63dieval
military warfare in a way we have just criti-
F*+38&&h&"E&"&6*a'B%3&$;&8B31E&$2&"&I"''13;*318&;$BO:'&
by warriors belonging to comparable social classes.
632'&"28&]3">$2E&$;&1$]3%&dB"1*'C-&IB'&E'*113;-
;3F'*@3-&8$&2$'&*6>1C&63%31C&:"E'*1C&%3F%B*'38&&F%$]8E&
who could offer only their numerical power.It took
skill to use that equipment and weapons effectively.
b"2E&431I%oF,-&$23&$;&':3&"8@$F"'3E&$;&':3&@*3]&':"'&
medieval warfare did not include highly developed
E'%"'3O*3E&"28&6*1*'"%C&E'%BF'B%3E&]:*F:&F$B18-&E*6*-
1"%&'$&':3&6$83%2&$23E-&;B2F'*$2&]*':*2&':3*%&E'%"'3-
O*F&'"F'*F"1&;%"63]$%,E-&"28&2$'&$21C&8B3&'$&>3%E$2"1&
dB"1*'*3E&$;&638*3@"1&6*1*'"%C&13"83%-&83EF%*I3E&"&F$2-
EF%*>'*$2& I"F,& *2& Q[cQ-& ]:32& ':3& 4B,3& /1I%3F:'& G&
ordered the summoning of all men capable of fight-
*2O&I3']332&QR&'$&mS&C3"%E&$;&"O3-&'$&;*O:'&"O"*2E'&
the Hussites on the territory under his authority. The
information on the combat equipment of the units is
"1E$&"@"*1"I13L&*2&3"F:&O%$B>&$;&US&632-&':%33&632&
]3%3&3dB*>>38&]*':&:"28&F"22$2E-&3*O:'&]*':&F%$EE-
I$]E-&;$B%&]*':&E>3"%E-&"28&;$B%&]*':&F$6I"'&;1"*1E.&
13632'E-&EBFF3EE;B11C&83;3"'38&':3*%&
"8@3%E"%*3E.&b$]3@3%-&':*E&;"F'&8$3E&2$'&EB;;*F*32'1C&
support the interpretation which does not consider
the possibility that conscripts received certain train-
*2O&*2&':3&]3">$2E&':3C&]3%3&%3E>$2E*I13&;$%-&63"2ing
there must have existed a system of acquiring
"28& >%"F'*F*2O& F$6I"'& '3F:2*dB3E-& "E& ]311& "E& ':3&
process of adaption to specific combat circumstances.
W;&2$'-&%3F%B*'632'&$;;*F3%E&F$B18&:"@3&3"E*1C&31*6*-
2"'38&':3&F$E'E&$;&;*%3&]3">$2E-&E>3"%E-&E]$%8E&"28&
F%$EEI$]E-&"28&8*E'%*IB'38&'$&':3&F$2EF%*>'E&E:"%>ened
farming tools they were familiar with (which
*E& "16$E'& 3a"F'1C& ]:"'& e"2& n*(,"& :"E& 8$23& '$& ':3&
bBEE*'3E-&':BE&@*F'$%*$BE&;$%&"&1$2O&'*63=.&W6"O3E&83picting
battle motifs also give evidence to the large extent
of various weapons and equipment which brings
9 Hans Delbrück, Medieval Warfare, Lincoln 1990, pp. 448–449.
M I L I T A R Y H I S T O R Y ! 31

in samostrele ter nabornikom razdelili nabru-
I:3$& /!:;/$& $%$4#:L& /-& 8$& '"& B-1-& 2"#:3-& 7/"%&
#:& 8/$%"#& 3"*"3;3$& *$L& /"%& #:& f"3& h-+/"& 8*$%-1&
8&=>8-*-&-3&*"/$&4$1'$&.!"'$2"1?(&5>4-&1-/$23:&
>0$4$B-*2:&B$#3-=&4$'$4/$2&/"+:#$&2:1-/$&%"-
.3$1-/$8*&$%$+#"&-3&$0%:!:L&/-&2.B>#"&20%"I"3#"&
o urjenju vojska. 10 Nikakor pa ne gre v nabor-
3-/-=&-3&I:&*"/$&0%-!:%3:!&>%#:3#>&7/-&#:&B-1$&
2& 0%-!:%>& 3"B$%"& 2:%#:*3$& 4$/"#& =-*%$?& -8/"*-&
2:I;-3&0$.3:#I-=&$%4$3"3;3-=&;:*&-3&0%2-=&0%"-
2-=&2$#"I/-=&:3$*&$B&/$3H>&8%:43#:'"&2:/"L&/-&
so spremenile vojaško doktrino ter odprle novo
poglavje v vojaški zgodovini s 16. stoletjem.
@-%$2& -.& 8%:43#:'"& 2:/"L& /-& B-& $82:*1-1-& "1-&
celo pojasnili sistematizacijo in urjenje boril-
3-=&2:I;-3&3"B$%3-/$2&"1-&8/>0-3&2$#I;"/$2L&3-&
2:1-/$L&.1"8*-&3:&2&$B1-/-&2$#"I/-=&0%-%$;3-/$2L&
/"/%I3-=&8!$&2"#:3-&$4&/$3H"&RZ(&8*(&D%:43#:-
2:I/-&2$#"I/-&%:4$2-&0%:/&82$#-=&%:4$23-=&0%"2-1&
0$3>#"#$&4$1$;:3&20$'1:4&2&2$#"I/$&8*%>/*>%$&
-3&0%-;"/$2"3#"&4$&82$#-=&;1"3$2&*:%&0%:40-8"-
3$&$%$+#:&-3&$0%:!$L&-.&/"*:%-=&1"=/$&0$8/>8--
!$&%".B%"*-&2:I;-3:&3#-=$2:&>0$%"B:(&^:&*:!>&
4$4"!$& I:& 0%-;:2"3#"& 3#-=$2-=& 8$4$B3-/$2& $&
2$#"I/-=&>80:=-=&7-3&3:>80:=-=?L&1"=/$&8/1:0"-
!$L&4"&#:&2&$."4#>&3#-=$2-=&B$#3-=&.!$'1#-2$8*-&
!$%"1&B-*-&8-8*:!&>%#:3#"L&8*"34"%4-.-%"3#"&*"/-
*-/:L&8*%>/*>%:&:3$*&-3&0$2:1#(&K:&'%:&0$."B-*-L&
4"&8$&3"#2:;#-&2$#"I/-&%:4$2-&.4%>+:2"1-&;1"3:&-.&
28:&/%I;"38/:&F2%$0:L&/-&8$&0%-3:81-&8&8"B$&/>1-
*>%3$&-3&B$#3$&*%"4-H-#$&82$#:'"&-.%$;-1"L&/-&B-L&
;:&3:&B-&B-1$&B$#3:&lingue franceL&2:%#:*3$&.:1$&
=%$!-1"&>;-3/$2-*$8*&*:=&:3$*(&A%-!:%#"#!$&*$&
.&"28*%$[$'%8/-!-&:3$*"!-L&2&/"*:%-=&8$&!$%"1"&
B-*-&0$2:1#"&2:;#:.-;3"L&-3&8&P%"3H$8/$&*>#8/$&1:-
'-#$L&/#:%&8:&!$%"#$&28-&0%-0"43-/-&3">;-*-&P%"3-
H$8/-=&0$2:1-#&-3&0$8*$0/$2&2&*:!&#:.-/>(&)$%-
4"&8"!&#:.-/&2&$B4$B#>&2$#"I/-=&%:4$2&I:&3-*-&
3-&B-1&3"#2:;#"&$2-%"&2&8-8*:!"*-."H-#-&*"/*-;3-=&
0$8*$0/$2&-3&B$#3-=&2:I;-3L&0$:3$*:3#:&*:=&0"&
#:&$%:=L&/-&'"&2:%#:*3$&1"=/$&8*%:&1:&0$:3$*:3&
sistem urjenja.
6$& 0"& 2:I;-3:& -.& 8*%$'$& 2$#"I/:'"& $/$1#"L&
*$%:#& $/$1#"& 8/>0-3L& $4& /"*:%-=& #:& 0%-;"/$2"*-&
0$2:."3$& -3& :3$*3$& 4:1$2"3#:& 2& B$#3-=& $/$1--
I;-3"=L&0%:8:1-!$&2&$/$1#:&0$8"!:.3-/"L&8:&0$-
/"+:#$&4$4"*3-&%".1$'-&."&3#:'$2$&B$#3$&>80$-
8$B1#:3$8*(&,$#-&2&0%"23:!&$/$1#>&742$B$#-?L&B$#-&
."& 2"4B$& -3& B$#-& 2& I0$%*3:!& 4>=>& 8:& 0$8*"2--
#$&$B&B$/&B$#>&3"&+-21#:3#:&-3&8!%*&3"&2$#3:!&
10" #$."7%0/$%"728)/89"Medieval Warfare in Manuscripts, Toronto 2003.
32 ! V O J A Š K A Z G O D O V I N A
up the question of army training. 10 & M3@3%':313EE-&
despite having received appropriate training (prob-
"I1C&@3%C&E:$%'=-&F$2EF%*>'E&8*8&2$'&>$EE3EE&':3&E,*11E&
of subsequent companies d’ordonnance and the first
%3"1&6*1*'"%C&B2*'E&"'&':3&@3%C&328&$;&':3&!*8813&/O3E-&
which changed the military doctrine and at the beginning
of the 16 th century opened a new chapter in
the history of warfare.
There are not many available medieval sources
which could give us a clear picture or even explain
':3& ECE'36"'*+"'*$2& "28& '%"*2*2O& $;& 6"%'*"1& "%'E-&
%3F3*@38& IC& F$2EF%*>'E& $%& O%$B>E& $;& ]"%%*$%E-& F3%-
'"*21C&2$'&*2&':3&;$%6&$;&6*1*'"%C&6"2B"1E-&'C>*F"1&
for the period from the end of the 18 th century up
to the present day. Medieval military orders offer a
certain insight into ther military structure through
':3*%&%B13E-&"E&]311&"E&*2'$&$I1*O"'*$2E&$;&':3*%&636bers
and also prescribed weapons and equipment
which can help us reach conclusions on their skills
regarding the employment of these weapons. If we
also consider testimonies on their military successes
9"28&;"*1B%3E=-&6"83&IC&':3*%&F$2'36>$%"%*3E-&]3&%3-
"1*+3&':"'&':3*%&F$6I"'&F">"I*1*'*3E&6BE'&:"@3&I332&
supported by a system of training and tactics stand-
"%8*+"'*$2-&"E&]311&"E&$;&B2*'&"28&F$66"28&E'%BFtures.
We should not forget that the greatest military
$%83%E&*2'3O%"'38&636I3%E&$;&"11&0:%*E'*"2&3-&
who brought with them their culture and combat tra-
8*'*$2&$;&':3*%&I"F,O%$B28E&]:*F:&]$B18-&]3%3&':3%3&
2$'&;$%&"&6*1*'"%C&1*2OB"&;%"2F"-&>%$I"I1C&:"@3&>"%"-
1C+38&':3&3;;*F*32FC&$;&':3E3&B2*'E.&/E&"&F$6>"%*E$2-&
let us remember that in the Austro-Hungarian Army
orders had to be multilingual while in the French
Foreign Legion all members had to learn French
orders and procedures. In the period of medieval
military orders perhaps the language itself did not
>%3E32'&':3&I*OO3E'&$IE'"F13&]*':*2&':3&ECE'36"'*+"-
'*$2& $;& '"F'*F"1& >%$F38B%3E& "28& 6"%'*"1& "%'E-& ]:*13&
unified procedures and skills presented a problem
which could only be solved by an unified system of
training.
j:32&E,*11E&;%$6&"&E'%*F'1C&6*1*'"%C&32@*%$2632'-&
that is the environment of groups which are expected
'$&E:$]&F$:3E*$2&"28&B2*'C&*2&F$6I"'&F*%FB6E'"2F3E-&
"%3&'%"2E;3%%38&'$&':3&32@*%$2632'&$;&"2&*28*@*8B"1-&
we can notice additional reasons for the individual’s
F$6I"'&"I*1*'C.&P*O:'E&*2&13O"1&32@*%$2632'&98B31E=-&
practise and sports fights become equally important
as the fights to the death on a battlefield. Compared
'$&&':3&>%3@*$BE&"E>3F'E-&':3&]3"1':&$;&]%*''32&E$B%F3E&
10" N//"7%0/$%"728)/89"Medieval Warfare in Manuscripts, Toronto 2003.

Sebastjan Lombar (levo) bo z bodalom napadel iz »spodnjega
8*"2"nL&C$!"3&@>;"#3/&74:83$?&0"&-.&m2-8$/:'"&8*"2"n(
D:B"8*#"3&3%;$%6*2O&"&'3F:2*dB3-&83EF%*I38&IC
e$"F:*6&!3C3%&*2&K%o28'1*F:3&)3EF:%3*IB2O&83E&P3F:'32E-&QRSS.
M I L I T A R Y H I S T O R Y ! 33
N$*$UPhoto: Matej Smrekar
N$*$UPhoto: Matej Smrekar

0$1#>(& ,$'"8*2$& 0-83-=& 2-%$2& #:& 2& 0%-!:%#"2-& 8&
prejšnjim aspektom prav neizmerno. V nada-
1#:2"3#>&3"2"#"!$&8:.3"!&0-83-=&2-%$2L&/-&8$&2&
."43#:!& ;"8>& 0$8*"1-& B$1#& 4$8*$03-& -3& ."4:2"-
#$&2:I;-3:&B$#:2"3#"&2&0$.3:!&8%:43#:!&2:/>(&
A%-0$!3-*-&#:&*%:B"L&4"&8:&I*:2-1$&2-%$2&.&3$2-!-&
$4/%-*#-&0$2:;>#:L&."*$&8:.3"!&I:&.4"1:;&3-&0$-
0$13(&A$1:'&*:'"&#:&."%"4-&1"+#:'"&%".>!:2"3#"&
*%:B"&4$4"*-L&4"&3:&2/1#>;>#:&8"!$&0-83-=&2-%$2L&
3"8*"1-=&2&0$.3:!&8%:43#:!&2:/>L&*:!2:;&*>4-&
*-8*:L& ."& /"*:%:& 1"=/$& .& '$*$2$8*#$& *%4-!$L& 4"&
$B%"23"2"#$&B$%-13:&-3&B$#3:&2:I;-3:L&.3";-13:&
za evropski pozni srednji vek.
C$g"1&E%!$>%-:8&X(ee&7"3$3-!3-&"2*$%L&0$.3$&
Re(&8*$1(_.";:*:/&R\(&8*$1(?b&*:=3-/:&B$#:2"-
3#"&.&!:;:!&-3&I;-*/$!(
Kd%3B:%':%&l"348H=%-P*L&i:%!"3-8H=:8&K"*-$-
3"1!>8:>!L&eVVk"b&7"3$3-!3-&"2*$%b&4$8*-krat
je avtorstvo pripisano Hanku Döbrin-
':%#>L&$/$1-&1:*"&ReZW?b&"1/-!-8*-;3-&%:H:0*-L&
"8*%$1$I/"&-3&!"'-;3"&B:8:4-1"L&1"*-38/-&/$ledar
ipd. Med njimi so sestavki o bojeva-
3#>&.&!:;:!L&0:I&-3&3"&/$3#8/:!&=%B*>L&2&
$/1:0>&-3&B%:.&3#:'"b&$&%>2"3#>L&B$#>&.&!:-
;:!&-3&I;-*$!L&messerjemb&0"1-H$&-3&B$4"1-(&
,:8:4-1"&0$2.:!"#$&-.%$;-1$&&8&/$3-H$L&m/1"4-2$!n&
in »sekiro«).
Flos duellatorum&7A-8"3-[O$88-&)D?b&7N-$%:&4:-&
2"3#:L&B$#&.&B$4"1$!L&!:-
;:!L&8>1-H$L&4$1'-!&!:;:!L&B$#&2&$/1:0>L&8&
8:/-%$&3"&4%$'>&-3&3"&/$3#>(&M=%"3#:3:&8$&*:&
%".1-;-H:&-8*:'"&"2*$%#"J&)D&)(eZe&7)$%'"3&
)D?L&/-&#:&3"#/%"#I"&%".1-;-H"&4:-&:%#:2:&
verze o »viteški umetnosti bojevanja z dol-
'-!&!:;:!n(
t8*:%%:-H=-8H=:& K"*-$3"1B-B1-$*=:/L& Codex
VindobonensisL& ,& RRTWeL& 7"3$3-!3-& "2*$%L&
34 ! V O J A Š K A Z G O D O V I N A
isimmense. Further on in the article you will find a
list of written sources which have become more available
in the past years and focus on the martial arts
from the Late Middle Ages. It must be stressed that
the list is ever growing due to new discoveries; therefore
it is far from complete. For better understanding
it must be said that the list does not include only
]%*''32&E$B%F3E&;%$6&':3&D"'3&!*8813&/O3E-&IB'&"1E$&
those for which we are convinced they address mar-
'*"1&"%'E-&'C>*F"1&$;&':3&3"2&D"'3&!*8813&/O3E.&
`$C"1&/%6$B%*3E&W.cc&9"2$2C6$BE&"B':$%-&1"'3&Qc th
century – the beginning of the 14 th century); combat
techniques with a sword and buckler.
Mo%2I3%O3%& b"28EF:%*;'-& K3%6"2*EF:3E& M"'*$2"1-
6BE3B6-& cUUm"p& 9"2$2C6$BE& "B':$%p& "1':$BO:&
*'&*E&$;'32&E"*8&':3&"B':$%&'$&I3&b"2,&4qI%*2O3%-&
F*%F"&QcYV=p&"1F:36*E'&%3F*>3E-&"E'%$1$O*F"1&'3a'E-&
D"'*2&F"1328"%-&'3a'E&$2&6"O*F-&3'F.&/6$2O&':36&
"1E$&"%'*F13E&$2&F$6I"'&]*':&"&E]$%8-&$2&;$$'-&$2&
:$%E3-&]*':&$%&]*':$B'&"%6$B%-&"I$B'&]%3E'1*2O-&
;*O:'*2O&]*':&"&E]$%8&"28&E:*318-&]*':&"&63EE3%-&
staff and dagger. The texts are based on the tradition
of Liechtenauer and his followers.
D"& #3B& 83& 1"& :"F:3-& )*I1*$':rdB3& M"'*$2"13& P%"2F3-&
!N&P`.&QVVR&9"2$2C6$BE&"B':$%-&F*%F"&Q[SS=p&*2structions
for combat with a combat axe (a wea-
>$2&$2&"&>$13&]*':&"&>$*2'-&"&l:"663%f&"28&l"a3f=.
Flos duellatorum (Pisani-Dossi MS); (Fiore dei Li-
I3%*-& Q[QS=p& O%">>1*2O-& F$6I"'& ]*':& "& 8"OO3%-&
E]$%8-& E>3"%-& 1$2O& E]$%8-& F$6I"'& *2& "%6$B%-&
F$6I"'& ]*':& "& >$13& "a3-& "28& F$6I"'& $2& :$%E3.&
From the same author the following versions are
>%3E3%@38L&!N&!.cYc&9!$%O"2&!N=-&':3&E:$%'3E'&
@3%E*$2&$;&83*&D*I3%*fE&]$%,-&!N&Dk4jWK&sG&Qc&
9K3''C&!N=&"28-&8*EF$@3%38&*2&USSY-&!N&D/5WM&
QURV& 9$%& P1$%*BE& 83& "%'3& 1BF'"28*=-& ]:*F:& *E& ':3&
latest version of dei Liberi’s work. The catalogue of
a library Estensa in Ferrara includes also Codex
DsssWG&9$%&!N&Y[=&"28&0$83a&0s&9$%&!N&QQS=&
IC&':3&E"63&"B':$%-&:$]3@3%-&':3*%&1$F"'*$2&*E&2$'&
known.
NtF:E*EF:3& D"283EI*I1*$':3,-& 4%3E832-& !EF%.& 0[Ym.&
9N*O6B28& `*2O3F,-& *2& Q[[S-& ">>%$a*6"'31C=p&
Ringeck’s commentaries on Liechtenauer’s verses
$2&"&l72*O:'fE&/%'&$;&':3&D$2OE]$%8f.
uE'3%%3*F:*EF:3&M"'*$2"1I*I1*$':3,-&0$83a&G*28$I$-
232E*E-& )& QQSVc-& 9"2$2C6$BE& "B':$%-& 6*8& QX':&
F32'B%C=p& F$6I"'& *2& "%6$B%& ]*':& "& E>3"%-& 1$2O&
E]$%8-& 8"OO3%& "28& >$13& "a3-& O%">>1*2O-& F$6I"'&
on horse with a sword.
)*I1*$'3F"& e"O*311$2E,*-& 7%",$]-& K1"8*"'$%*"-& !N&
K3%6&vB"%'&QR-&M`&XYmY-&QVYV&`_7&9"2$2C6$BE&

8%:4-3"&RY(&8*$1(?b&B$#&2&$/1:0>&8&8>1-H$L&4$1-
'-!&!:;:!L&4$1'-!&!:;:!&-3&B$4"1$!L&8:-
/-%$&3"&4%$'>L&%>2"3#:L&B$#:2"3#:&.&!:;:!&
na konju.
,-B1-$*:H"& f"'-:11$38/-L& 6%"/$GL& GladiatoriaL&
)D& i:%!& u>"%*& RSL& KC& YZkZL& RWZW& CM6&
7"3$!-!3-& "2*$%L& $/$1-& 1:*"& R\YT?b& 42$B$#&
2& $/1:0>& 8& 0%:0%-#:*-!& !:;:!L& 8>1-H$& -3&
bodalom.
,%-*-8=&)>8:>!L&The Man Who WolL&)D(&eY\Vb&
7"3$3-!3-& "2*$%L& R(& 0$1$2-H"& RY(& 8*(?b& 4:1$&
'$2$%-& $& *:=3-/"=& B$#:2"3#"& .& 42$%$;3-!&
!:;:!(
,%-*-8=& %'L& Codex WallersteinL&`$4(&X(S(\(V&7"3$3-!3-&"2*$%L&$/$1-&
1:*"&R\kT?b&*:=3-/:&B$#:2"3#"&.&4$1'-!&!:-
;:!L&B$4"1$!&-3&%>2"3#:L&B$#&2&$/1:0>L&8&8>lico
in sekiro na drogu.
9:3*%"1B-B1-$*=:/&D$1$*=>%3L&`$4(&DYY\L&7"3$-
3-!3-&"2*$%L&$/$1-&1:*"&R\kT?b&*:=3-/:&B$#"&2&
$/1:0>&.&4$1'-!&!:;:!L&B$#&3"&/$3#>L&B$#&.&
B$4"1$!L&%>2"3#:L&B$#&8&I;-*$!(
,"g:%-8H=:& D*""*8B-B1-$*=:/L& ,D,& `'!& RYTk&
7A">1>8&6"1L&$/$1-&1:*"&R\kW?b&B$#&3"&/$3#>L&
B$#&2&$/1:0>&8&8>1-H$L&4$1'-!&!:;:!L&B$4"-
1$!L& 8:/-%$& 3"& 4%$'>L& 0"2:."!-L& B$#& !:4&
!$I/-!& -3& +:38/$L& B%:.& $/1:0"& .& 4$1'-!&
!:;:!L&messerjemL&B$4"1$!&-3&%>2"3#:(
Fondo Vittorio Emanuele della Biblioteca Nazi-
$3"1:&4-&C$!"L&De arte gladiatoria dimicandiL&`$4:r&ReV\&7N-1-00$&@"4-L&R\ZY?b&B$#&.&
4$1'-!&!:;:!L&2&$/1:0>&8&8:/-%$&3"&4%$'>L&
"B':$%-&F*%F"&Q[XS=p&"&8B31&*2&"%6$B%&]*':&"&:"1;Z
E]$%8-&E>3"%&"28&8"OO3%.
)%*'*E:& !BE3B6-& 5:3& !"2& j:$& j$1-& !N.& cX[Up&
9"2$2C6$BE&"B':$%-&':3&;*%E'&:"1;&$;&':3&QX':&F32tury);
combat techniques with a double-handed
sword.
)%*'*E:&D*I%"%C-&!N.&cVXR[&9"2$2C6$BE&"B':$%-&*2&
the middle of the 15th century); the system of fighting
with a sword.
)*I1*$':3F"& 8311f/F"836*F"& M"+*$2"13& 83*& D*2F3*& 3&
0$%E*2*"2"-&0$8.&[[&/&Y&90$8.&Q[[V=&Q[XU&9H3-
'3%&@$2&4"2+*O-&F*%F"&Q[XU=p&;*O:'*2O&"FF$%8*2O&'$&
Liechtenauer’s tradition; techniques of sword and
IBF,13%-&;*O:'*2O&]*':&"&8"OO3%-&O%">>1*2O&"28&"&
longsword.
43'&7$2O31*O3&)*I1*$'3,-&0$>32:"O32-&/1'3&/%6"'B%&
B28& `*2O,B2E'-& 5:$''& UVS& U& 9b"2E& 5"1:$;;3%-&
Q[XV=p&E*3O3&6"F:*23E&"28&83@*F3E&$;&]"%-&;*O:'*2O&
'3F:2*dB3E& ]*':& "& 8$BI13Z:"2838& E]$%8-& E]$%8&
"28&IBF,13%-&8"OO3%-&>$13&"a3-&O%">>1*2O-&#B8*F*"1&
8B31E&9E$63&E>3F*"1&F"E3E&"%3&"1E$&83>*F'38-&EBF:&
"E&>"@*E3E&]*':&>$*2'E&$2&I$':&328E-&F$6I"'&I3tween
a man and a woman) and combat on horse.
)"C3%*EF:3& N'""'EI*I1*$':3,-& P3F:'IBF:& @$2& Q[Rm-&
)N)&0$8.&*F$2.&cV["-&9b"2E&5"1:$;;3%-&Q[Rm=.
k2*@3%E*'t'EI*I1*$':3,&/BOEIB%O-&0$83a&j"113%E'3*2-&
0$8.&W.R.[.U&9"2$2C6$BE&"B':$%-&F*%F"&Q[mS=p&;*-
O:'*2O&'3F:2*dB3E&]*':&"&1$2OE]$%8-&8"OO3%-&O%"-
>>1*2O-&;*O:'*2O&*2&"%6$B%-&]*':&"&E>3"%&"28&>$13&
axe.
?32'%"1I*I1*$':3,&N$1$':B%2-&0$8.&NXX[-&9"2$2C6$-
BE&"B':$%-&F*%F"&Q[mS=p&F$6I"'&'3F:2*dB3E&*2&"%-
6$B%& ]*':& "& 1$2OE]$%8-& F$6I"'& $2& "& :$%E3-& ;*-
O:'*2O&]*':&"&8"OO3%-&O%">>1*2O-&;*O:'*2O&]*':&"&
shield.
)"C3%*EF:3&N'""'EI*I1*$':3,-&)N)&0O6&QXSm&9H"B1BE&
7"1-& F*%F"& Q[mV=p& F$6I"'& $2& "& :$%E3-& F$6I"'& *2&
"%6$B%&]*':&"&E>3"%-&1$2OE]$%8-&8"OO3%-&>$13&"a3-&
>"@*E3E-&F$6I"'&I3']332&"&6"2&"28&]$6"2-&;*O:-
'*2O& ]*':$B'& "%6$B%& ]*':& "& 1$2OE]$%8-& 63EE3%-&
8"OO3%-&"28&O%">>1*2O.&
P$28$&G*''$%*$&$13& "a3-& ]*':&
E>"8"& *2& "%63-& F$6I"'& ]*':$B'& "%6$B%& ]*':& "&
E>3"%-&8"OO3%-&"28&O%">>1*2O.
k2*@3%E*'t'EI*I1*$':3,&N"1+IB%O-&!.W.UV&Q[VQ&9b"2E&
@$2& N>3C3%-& Q[VQ=p& @$2& N>3C3%& 83EF%*I38& '3F:niques
of various masters on fighting with a long
E]$%8-& 63EE3%-& E:$%'& E]$%8-& O%">>1*2O-& F$6I"'&
with a sword on a horse and jousting with lance
)*I1*$'3,"&e"O*311$2E,*-&7%",$]-&K$1*"':-&!E.&K3%6.&
M I L I T A R Y H I S T O R Y ! 35

s spada in armeL&B$#&B%:.&$/1:0"&8&8>1-H$L&B$dalom
in ruvanje.
c3-2:%8-*s*8B-B1-$*=:/& D"1.B>%'L& )(X(VW& R\WR&
7l"38&2$3&D0:g:%L&R\WR?b&2$3&D0:g:%&#:&."-
0-8"1& *:=3-/:& %".1-;3-=& !$#8*%$2& $& B$#:2"-
3#>& .& 4$1'-!& !:;:!L& messerjemL& /%"*/-!&
!:;:!L&%>2"3#>L&B$#>&.&!:;:!&3"&/$3#>&-3&
bodenju s sulico.
,-B1-$*:/"& f"'-:11$38/-L& 6%"/$GL& GoliathL& )8(&
i:%!(& u>"%*(& VTVTL& KCJ& YZkW& RWZW& CM6&
7"3$3-!3-&"2*$%L&$/$1-&1:*"&RYTT?b&B$#:2"3#:&
2&$/1:0>&.&4$1'-!&!:;:!L&8>1-H$L&$%$+#:!&
3"&4%$'>L&B$#&B%:.&$/1:0"L&.&B$4"1$!(
Das Ringersbuch& 7l"38& p>%!L& $/$1-& 1:*"&
RYTT?b&!"1$&.3"3$&4:1$&$&*:=3-/"=&%>2"3#"
,-B1-$*=oj>:&K"*-$3"1:&N%"3H:L&C[V\ZYZ&7E3*$-
3-$&)"3H-$1-3$L&RYeR?b&0%-0"43-/&-*"1-#"38/:&
2:#:&B$#:2"3#"L&*(&-(&B$1$3#8/:&I$1:b&0%:$8*"1-&
izvodi tega dela so v Biblioteca nazionale
H:3*%"1:& 4-& C$!"L& ,-B1-$*:H"& >3-2:%8-*"%-"&
di Padova in Biblioteca reale di Torino.
c3-2:%8-*:-*8B-B1-$*=::/& 6(& c(& 2:3L& _>3%"&
novaL&\E&WeZ&7EH=-11:&)"%$..$L&RYeS?b&0%--
0"43-/&B$1$3#8/:&I$1:b&4:1$&0%-/".>#:&8-8*:!&
B$#:2"3#"&.&%".1-;3-!-&$%$+#-b&-.I1$&#:&I:&1:*"&
1568 pod naslovom Arte dell'armi di Achille
!"%$++$&)$1$O23E3.
c3-2:%8-*s*8B-B1-$*=:/& i%".L& Über die Fechtkunst
und den RingkampfL& )8(& WSe& 7l"38&
`.g33:%L&RYeZ?b&B$#&2&$/1:0>&.&4$1'-!&!:-
;:!L&.&B$4"1$!(
c3-2:%8-*s*8B-B1-$*=:/& i%".L& Ringer kunst:
;o2;;&B28&"F:'+*O&E'oF,3&7N"B-:3&2$3&E>:%-
8G"14L&RYeW?b&8-8*:!&B$#:2"3#:&B%:.&$%$+#"&
– ruvanje.
t8*:%%:-H=-8H=:&K"*-$3"1B-B1-$*=:/L&_>BE&"6plissimum
de arte athletica – Codex Vindobonensis
Palatinus& RT(ZVY& 7A">1>8& l:H*$%&
)"-%L&R(&0$1$2-H"&RS(&8*(?b&B$#&B%:.&$%$+#"&.&
4$1'-!&!:;:!L&B$4"1$!L&0"1-H$L&dusakomL&
8:/-%$&3"&4%$'>&-3&8%0$!(&X.2$4&2&42:=&/3#--
'"=&=%"3-&*>4-&,"g:%-8H=:&D*""*8B-B1-$*=:/L&
-3&8-H:%&,D,&`$4(&XH$3(&eWe&7R&-3&,D,&`$4(&
XH$3(&eWe&V?(
c3-2:%8-*:-*8B-B1-$*=::/&6(&c(&2:3L&\E&YR\&
7l"38&$13&]3">$2E-&;*O:'*2O&]*':$B'&
"%6$B%-&;*O:'*2O&]*':&"&8"OO3%.
Das Ringersbuch& 7l"38& p>%!L& H-%H"& RYTT?b&
less known treatise on grappling&*:H=3-j>:8(
)*I1*$':rdB3& M"'*$2"13& P%"2F3-& `ZU[YXY& 9/2'$2*$&
!"2F*$1*2$-& QXcQ=p& "& 636I3%& $;& ':3& W'"1*"2& ;*-
O:'*2O&'%"8*'*$2-&':3&E$ZF"1138&)$1$O23E3&EF:$$1p&
other copies of this work are held in Biblioteca
M"+*$2"13&032'%"13&8*&`$6"-&)*I1*$'3F"&k2*@3%E*taria
di Padova in Biblioteca Reale di Torino.
k2*@3%E*'3*'EI*I1*$':33,& 7.& k.& D3B@32-& _>3%"& 2$@"-&
[/& VcY& 9/F:*113& !"%$++$-& QXcR=p& "& 636I3%& $;&
the Bolognese school; the work describes a system
of fighting with different weapons; the work was
re-published in 1568 with under the title Arte
8311f"%6*&8*&/F:*113&!"%$++$&)$1$O23E3.
k2*@3%E*'t'EI*I1*$':3,&K%"+-&wI3%&8*3&P3F:',B2E'&B28&
832&`*2O,"6>;-&!E.&VRc&9b"2E&0+C223%-&QXcY=p&
combat in armour with a long sword and dagger.
k2*@3%E*'t'EI*I1*$':3,&K%"+-&`*2O3%&,B2E'L&;o2;;&B28&
"F:'+*O& E'oF,3& 9P"I*32& @$2& /B3%E]"18-& QXcV=p& "&
system of fighting without weapons – grappling.
uE'3%%3*F:*EF:3& M"'*$2"1I*I1*$':3,-& _>BE& "6>1*EE*mum
de arte athletica – Codex Vindobonensis Pa-
1"'*2BE&QS.YUX&9H"B1BE&b3F'$%&!"*%-&':3&;*%E'&:"1;&
$;&':3&QR':&F32'B%C=p&;*O:'*2O&]*':&&':3&1$2OE]$%8-&
8"OO3%-&E'*F,-&8BE",-&>$13&"a3&"28&E*F,13.&/&F$>C&
*E&:318&"1E$&*2&)"C3%*EF:3&N'""'EI*I1*$':3,-&':"'&*E&
)N)&0$8.&WF$2.&cVc9Q&*2&)N)&0$8.&WF$2.&cVc&U=.
k2*@3%E*'3*'EI*I1*$':33,&&7.&k.&D3B@32-&[/&XQ[&9b"2E&
D3F,oF:23%TD3I,$663%-&QXXY=p&"&ECE'36&$;&F$6-
I"'&]*':&"&1$2OE]$%8-&8BE"F,-&8"OO3%-&O%">>1*2O-&
;*O:'*2O& ]*':& "& E'";;.& 5:3& ]$%,& 7B2E'& 83E& !3E-
E3%;3F:'32E-& ]%*''32& IC& ':3& E"63& "B':$%-& *E& :318&
*2& b3*831I3%O3%& k2*@3%E*'t'EI*I1*$':3,-& 0$8.& H"1.&
O3%6.& [cS& 9F*%F"& Q[mY=-& "28& *2& )"C3%*EF:3& N'"-
"'EI*I1*$':3,& B283%& )N)& 0O6& XYU& 9F*%F"& Q[YU=.&
Probably the same copy is held in Universitätsbi-
I1*$':3,&!o2F:32&B283%&j[&/%'.&Uc[.
5%"''"'$&8*&EF*32'*"&8f&"%63-&90"6*11$&/O%*>>"-&QXXc=p&
;*O:'*2O&]*':&"&E]$%8-&;*O:'*2O&]*':&"&E]$%8&"28&
8"OO3%-&]*':&"&:"1I3%8-&E]$%8&"28&IBF,13%.&
)"C3%*EF:3& N'""'EI*I1*$':3,-& K%o28'1*F:3& )3EF:%3-
*IB2O&83E&P3F:'32E-&G4QR&!&XSYm&9e$"F:*6&!3C3%-&
QXmS=p&"&'3a'-&EB>>$%'38&IC&%*F:&O%">:*FE.&W'&83-
EF%*I3E&"&;*O:'*2O&]*':&"&>$13&"a3-&%">*3%-&8$BI13Z
:"2838&E]$%8-&8BE"F,-&"28&O%">>1*2O.&5:3&]$%,&
of the same author (Gründtliche Beschreibung des
P3F:'32E-& /BOEIB%O& QRSS& xG4QR& !& XSYYy-& :318&
by the same library) describes a system of figh-
'*2O&]*':&':3&1$2OE]$%8-&8BE"F,-&%">*3%-&8"OO3%-&

#:& 2& c3-2:%8-*s*8B-B1-$*=:/& )d3H=:3& 0$4&
$.3"/$&p\&E%*(&Ve\(
Trattato di scientia d' armeL&7`"!-11$&E'%-00"L&
RYYe?b&B$#&.&!:;:!L&!:;:!&-3&B$4"1$!L&=:-
1:B"%4$L&!:;:!&-3&I;-*/$!(
,"g:%-8H=:& D*""*8B-B1-$*=:/L Gründtliche Beschreibung
des FechtensL&@ORS&)&YTZk&7f$"-
H=-!&):g:%L&RYkT?b&B:8:4-1$L&0$40%*$&.&.:1$&
B$'"*-!-&'%"P-/"!-L&$&B$#:2"3#>&8&8:/-%"!-&
3"&4%$'>L&%"0-%#-L&42$%$;3-!-&!:;-L&dusakiL&
in ruvanjem. Delo istega avtorja (Gründtli-
H=:& ,:8H=%:-B>3'& 4:8& N:H=*:38L& E>'8B>%'&
RSTT&w@ORS&)&YTZZxL&=%"3-&'"&-8*"&>8*"3$va)
podaja sistem bojevanja z dolgim me-
;:!L&dusakomL&%"0-%#:!L&B$4"1$!L&%>2"3#:L&
boj s palico (halbe Stange?L&=:1:B"%4$&-3&4$1go
sulico (lang Spieß). Univerza v Lundu na
Q2:48/:!&=%"3-&):g:%#:2&%$/$0-8&Fechtbuch
0$4&$.3"/$&)8H&E&\TVL&2&3#:!&#:&0%-/"."3&
8-8*:!& B$#:2"3#"& .& 4$1'-!& !:;:!L& dusakom&-3&%"0-%#:!b&%$/$0-8&B$'"*-#$&;>4$2-*:&
ilustracije.
,"g:%-8H=:&D*""*8B-B1-$*=:/L De Veris Principiis
/%'*E&4*6*F"'$%*"3-&5%"F'"'BE&I%3B*EL&@ORS&i&
eWRY&7l:-3%-H=&2$3&id34:%%$4:U&l:3%-H-&"&
i>3*:%%$4*L&RYkW?(
c3-2:%8-*:-*8B-B1-$*=::/&6(&c(&2:3L&His True
Arte of DefenseL&\E&S\V&7i-"H$!$&4-&i%"8-
8-L&RYW\?b&1:*"&RYW\&2&"3'1:I;-3$&0%:2:4:3$&
delo (italijanski izvirnik je nastal leta 1570)
'$2$%-&$&8-8*:!>&B$#:2"3#"&.&42$%$;3-!&!:-
;:!L&$%$+#-&3"&4%$'>L&8>1-H$L&%"0-%#:!L&B$#>&
.&%"0-%#:!&-3&B$4"1$!L&%"0-%#:!&-3&01"I;:!L&
%"0-%#:!&-3&I;-*/$!&*:%&*"%;$(
c3-2:%8-*:-*8B-B1-$*=::/& 6(& c(& 2:3L& Paradoxes
of DefenseL& \E& ReTk& 7i:$%':& D-12:%L&
RYWW?b&;:0%"2&"2*$%&2:1-/&4:1&0-8"3#"&0$%"bi
za argumentiranje proti italijanskemu
%"0-%#>L& 4:1$& 0$3>#"& ."3-!-2:& -.*$;3-H:& $&
0%"2-13-& >0$%"B-& 42$%$;3:'"& !:;"L& B$4"1"&
-3&%".1-;3-=&$%$+-#&3"&4%$'>(&
M3B& 7o2E'1*F:3E& P3F:'IBF: (Jakob Sutor von
,"4:3L& RSRV?b& 4:1$& +:& 4"1:;& 0%:8:'"& 8%:-
43#:2:I/-& $0>8& 0-8"3-=& 2-%$2& $& B$#3-=& -3&
B$%-13-=&2:I;-3"=L&"&'"&."%"4-&28:B-3:&0%--
80:2/"&>2%I;"!&3"&*"&8:.3"!b&>/2"%#"&8:&
O%">>1*2O-&;*O:'*2O&]*':&E'";;&9:"1I3&N'"2O3=-&:"1berd
and long spear (lang Spieß). Meyer’s manuscript
Fechtbuch is held by the University in Lund
*2&N]3832&B283%&!EF&/&[SU.&5:3&]$%,&83EF%*I3E&"&
ECE'36&$;&F$6I"'&]*':&':3&1$2OE]$%8-&8BE"F,&"28&
rapier. The manuscript is beautifully illustrated.
)"C3%*EF:3&N'""'EI*I1*$':3,-&43&G3%*E&H%*2F*>**E&/%-
'*E&4*6*F"'$%*"3-&5%"F'"'BE&I%3B*E-&G4QR&K&cVQX&
9b3*2%*F:&@$2&Ko283%%$83T&b32%*F*&"&KB2'3%%$8'-&
QXmV=.
k2*@3%E*'3*'EI*I1*$':33,&7.&k.&D3B@32-&b*E&5%B3&/%'3&
$;& 43;32E3-& [/& R[U& 9K*"F$6$& 8*& K%"EE*-& QXV[=p&
"& '%3"'*E3& & '%"2E1"'38& *2'$& $2E-&1"2F3E-&%">*3%E-&;*O:'*2O&]*':&"&%"-
>*3%&"28&8"OO3%-&%">*3%&"28&F1$",-&%">*3%&"28&IBFkler
and target.
k2*@3%E*'3*'EI*I1*$':33,& 7.& k.& D3B@32-& H"%"8$a3E& $;&
43;32E3-&[/&QcSm&9K3$%O3&N*1@3%-&QXVV=p&"1':$BO:&
':3&"B':$%&8*E">>%$@3E&$;&W'"1*"2&%">*3%E-&':3&]$%,&
provides interesting instructions on the proper
BE3&$;&"&']$Z:"2838&E]$%8-&8"OO3%&"28&@"%*$BE&
pole weapons.
M3B&7o2E'1*F:3E&P3F:'IBF:&9e",$I&NB'$%&@$2&)"832-&
QRQU=p&':3&'%3"'*E3&*E&2$&1$2O3%&638*3@"1&]%*''32&
E$B%F3&$2&6"%'*"1&"%'E-&:$]3@3%-&*'&*E&>B'&$2&':*E&
list due to its content: the work deals with tech-
2*dB3E&$;&"&1$2OE]$%8-&"&8BE"F,&"28&8"OO3%.
An important issue when addressing Late Medieval
martial arts is certainly a question of didactics and
pedagogy. The period were already familiar with
the tradition of master Liechtenauer which strongly
influenced the perception and methods of fighting
]*':&@"%*$BE&,*28E&$;&]3">$2E&$%&]*':$B'&':36.&_2&
W'"1*"2& '3%%*'$%C& ':3& '%"8*'*$2& $;& @"%*$BE& 6"E'3%E-&
EBF:& "E& P*$%3& 83*& D*I3%*-& ]"E& 3E'"I1*E:38-& ;$11$]38&
by several progressive branches in the 16 th century.
What is in question here is not merely a collection
$;& '3F:2*dB3E-& IB'& O32B*23& F$6>13'3& ECE'36E.& 5:3&
authors of written resources stress that this is noth-
*2O&13EE&':"2&l%*''3%1*F:&7B2E'f 11 &$%&"&EF*32F3-&%3E3%@38&
;$%& F$B%'*3%E-& EF:$1"%E-& "%*E'$F%"'E& "28& %B13%E QU -&
':"'& *E-& *28*@*8B"1E& ]*':& ':3& %3dB*%38& >:CE*F"1- 13
*2'3113F'B"1- 14 mental and moral capabilities. The
11" ]820")>/"),)$/"4/')/'=/"m5,/">/?)"4,=>"%'"+,/"8,))/8$,=>"1*'4)"+/4"$%'E/'"4=>X/8)4n."
Sigmund Ringeck, MS Dresd. C487.
12 ‘… corregiani scolari baroni principi Duchi et Re debeno essere inuitati acquesta
nobile scientia…’. Filippo Vadi, De arte gladiatoria dimicandi, Codex 1324, fondo
Vittorio Emanuele della Biblioteca Nazionale di Roma, fol. 2r.
13 In His true Art of Defense Giacomo di Grassi dedicates the whole chapter to the
method of training for increasing the physical strength.
14 Fiore dei Liberi and Filippo Vadi consider prudentia with the symbol of compasses,
(dei Liberi) and a statement ‘Da geometria lo scrimir se nasce’ the most important
M I L I T A R Y H I S T O R Y ! 37

3"!%:;&8&*:=3-/"!-&4$1':'"&!:;"L&dusaka
in bodala.
A%-& $B%"23"2"3#>& B$%-13-=& 2:I;-3& 0$.3:ga
srednjega veka je pomembno vprašanje
4-4"/*-/:& -3& 0:4"'$'-/:(& 5:4"#& 8$& +:& 0$.3"1-&
4$B%$& >*%#:3$& -.%$;-1$& !$#8*%"& #:&0$#!$2"3#:&-3&3";-3&
B$#:2"3#"&.&%".1-;3-!-&2%8*"!-&$%$+#"&"1-&B%:.&
3#:'"(&@&-*"1-#"38/-=&4:+:1"=&8:&#:&>*%4-1"&*%"-
4-H-#"& 0$& !$#8*%-=L& /$*& #:& N-$%:& 4:-& &3"4$!:8*-1$&2:;&3"0%:43-=&
2:#(&K:&'$2$%-!$&2:;&$&.B-%/-&*:=3-/L&*:!2:;&
$& 0%"2-=& ."/1#>;:3-=& 8-8*:!-=(& E2*$%#-& 0-83-=&
2-%$2& .:1$& 0$>4"%#"#$L& 4"& 3:& '%:& ."& 3-;& !"3#&
/$*&m%-**:%1-H=&6>38*n 11 &"1-&."&.3"3$8*L&%:.:%2--
%"3$& ."& 42$%#"3:L& >;:3#"/:L& 2-8$/$& 01:!8*2$&
-3&21"4"%#:L RV torej posameznike s potrebnimi
*:1:83-!-L 13 & -3*:1:/*>"13-!-L 14 duševnimi in
!$%"13-!-& .!$'1#-2$8*!-(& @:;& /$*& 801$I3-=&
navodil nam mojstri oziroma avtorji virov niti
3:&0$4"#$&2&8!-81>&3"*"3;3-=&2"4B:3-=&!:*$4&
-3&4-4"/*-/:L&1"=/$&0"&0%:/&4%>'-=&2-%$2&80$-
.3"!$L& 4"& 8$& $B8*"#"1:& I$1:& $.-%$!"& >;-*:1#-&
B$#:2"3#"L& /-& 8$& !$%"1-& -!:*-& 1-H:3H$& ."& 82$#&
8*"*>8& -3& 4:1$2"3#:(& 5"/$& B:%:!$L& 4"& 8$& 1:*"&
RRZW&2&&0%:0$2:4"1-&!:;:2"18/:&I$1:L&
8& /"*:%-!-& #:& -!:1$& !:8*$& /"%& 2%$;:& $43$8:L&
ki so se pregrevali vse do obdobja vladavine
l:3%-/"& @XXX(& 5>4-& 3"& H:1-3-& $;-*3$& 3-8$& %"4-&
'1:4"1-&I$1&!:;:2"3#"&0$&!:8*-=L&I:&0$8:B:#&3:&
2&>3-2:%.-*:*3-=&8%:4-I;-=(&M;-*3$&8$&I*>4:3*#:&
;"8&I*>4-#"&0%:2:;&%"4-&3"!:3#"1-&>;:3#>&B$#:-
2"3#"b&*"/$&8$&#-!&3"&>3-2:%.-&2&l:-4:1B:%'>&
+:&1:*"&ReZW&71:*$&43-&0$&>8*"3$2-*2-?&0%:0$2:-
4"1-&$B-8/$2"3#:&B$%-13-=&I$1(&C:/*$%&#:&!$%"1&
prepoved ponoviti leta 1415. Podobno je bilo
2&A"%-.>L&/#:%&8$&1:*"&RYY\&+:1:1-&0%:'3"*-&!$#-
8*%:&B$#:2"3#"&-.&!:8*"L&-3&23$2-;&1:*"&RYkY( 15
Poleg slabega vpliva na mladino so ugled
mojstrov bojevanja spodkopavale tudi druge
4:#"23$8*-L&0%:428:!&%".>.4"3$&+-21#:3#:L&8$-
4:1$2"3#:& 2& 0-23-I/-=& 0%:*:0-=L& B$#:2"3#>& ."&
11 Iz naslovnega stavka »Hie hept sich an die ritterlich kunst des langen schwerts«.
Sigmund Ringeck, MS Dresd. C487.
12" mp"=288/E,%',"4=2$%8,"D%82',"?8,'=,?,"H*=>,"/)"3$>13-&':3&%3>B'"'*$2&$;&6"E'3%E&$;&
;*O:'*2O& E,*11E& ]"E& B283%6*238& IC& $':3%& "F'*@*'*3E-&
3E>3F*"11C&"&>%$6*EFB$BE&]"C&$;&1*;3-&>"%'*F*>"'*$2&*2&
'"@3%2&I%"]1E-&;*O:'*2O&;$%&6$23C&"28&I"8&'3"F:*2O&
methods. 16 Brotherhoods and fraternities of fencers
were a common phenomenon; in German territories
two strong brotherhoods are still recalled. The first
was Bruderschafft Unserer lieben frawen und der
reynen Jungfrawen Marien vnd des Heiligen vnd
gewaltsamen Hyemelfursten sanct Marcen. The year
$;&*'E&3E'"I1*E:632'&*E&2$'&,2$]2-&:$]3@3%-&*2&Q[Ym&
the Emperor Frederick III granted it the monopoly
$@3%&':3&'*'13&l!"E'3%&$;&':3&D$2OE]$%8f&9!3*E'3%&83E&
langen Schwerts); after this they became known also
"E& !"%aI%o83%-& )%B83%EF:";'& 83E& :3*1*O32& !"%%32&
$%& )%B83%EF:";'& 83E& N'.& !"%F$.& 5:3*%& F$6>3'*'$%E-&
P%3*;3F:'3%&@$2&83%&P383%&+B6&K%3*;32;31E-&3E'"I1*E:38&
their brotherhood in 1570 in Prague. We are also fa-
6*1*"%& ]*':& ':3& 3a*E'32F3& $;& ':3& ':*%8& I%$':3%:$$8-&
DB,"EI%o83%-&]:*F:&]"E&23@3%&$;;*F*"11C&F$2;*%638.&
Not everybody had a positive opinion regarding
':3&"F'*@*'*3E&$;&':3E3&I%$':3%:$$8E-&"E&E'"'38&*2&"2&
anonymous work entitled Des träumenden Pasquini
kluge Staatsphantasien from 1687. It tells a story of
the Duke of Savoy who went fencing with Marechal
values needed for successful training of fighting skills. (Filippo Vadi, De arte gladiatoria
dimicandi, fol. 4r).
15 Sydney Anglo, The Martial Arts of Renaissance Europe, London 2000, pp. 8–9.
16 Anglo 2000, p. 11.

4:3"%& -3& 81"B:& !:*$4:& 0$>;:2"3#"( 16 Znane
.4%>+B:&-3&B%"*$2I;-3:&B$#:23-/$2&8$&B-1:&0$-
'$8*:b&2&3:!I/-=&4:+:1"=&8:&#:&$=%"3-1&80$!-3&
3"&42:&!$;3-(&A%2"&#:&B-1"&Bruderschafft Unserere
lieben frawen und der reynen Jungfrawen
Marien vnd des Heiligen vnd gewaltsamen Hyemelfursten
sanct Marcen. Letnica njene ustano-
2-*2:&3-&.3"3"L&#-&#:&0"&1:*"&R\Zk&H:8"%&N%-4:rik
III. podelil monopol nad nazivom »mojstra
4$1':'"&!:;"n&7Meister des langen Schwerts?b&
0$&*:#&;"8*-&8$&;1"3-&0$8*"1-&.3"3-&*>4-&/$*&MarxbrüderL&
Bruderschaft des heiligen Marren ali
Bruderschaft des St. Marco(& K#-=$2-& *:/!:H-L&
P%3*;3F:'3%& @$2& 83%& P383%& +B6& K%3*;32;31EL& 8$&
82$#$& .4%>+B$& >8*"3$2-1-& 1:*"& RYkT& 2& A%"'-(&
A$.3"!$&I:&*%:*#$L&LukasbrüderL&2:34"%&*"&3-&
B-1"&>%"43$&0$*%#:3"(&M&4:#"23$8*-&*:=&.4%>+B&
28-& 3-8$& -!:1-& 3"#B$1#I:'"& !3:3#"b& /$*& 0%"2-&
anonimno pisanje z naslovom Des träumenden
Pasquini kluge Staatsphantasien iz leta 1687
$& *:!L& /"/$& 8:& #:& I:1& 2$#2$4"& D"2$#8/-& !"1H:&
!:;:2"*&.&!"%I"1$!&4:&`"*-3"*&-3&!>&3-&8*$%-1&
3-;&2:;&+"1:'"L&/$*&8$&*$&0$;:1-&/$2-&-3&)"%kovi
bratje s svojim frajfehterajemL&/$&8$&4%>'&
4%>':!>&!"1H:&$/%2"2-1-&'1"2:L&!:4*:!&/$&8$&
$0".$2"1H:!&0%".3-1-&+:0:(&
Vendar tudi zapisi o preganjanju in zapi-
%"3#>&"1-&H:1$&0$="B1#"3#>&3"&0$1&/%-!-3"13-=&
!$#8*%$2&B$#:2"3#"&3:&!$%:#$&8/%-*-&4:#8*2"L&4"&
se je ob koncu 14. stoletja povsem suvereno in
nenadomestljivo pojavila cela vrsta mojstrov in
"2*$%#:2&2-%$2L&/-&8:&2&.'$4$2-3$&3-8$&."0-8"1-&
/$*&*2$%H-&3:%:4"L&*:!2:;&*%43:'"&-.%$;-1"&>;:-
3#"&-3&2"4B:&B$%-13-=&2:I;-3L&/-&8$&8:&$B4%+"1:&
-3&%".2-#"1:&I:&3"81:43#-&42:&8*$1:*#-(&@&3:!I/-=&
4:+:1"=& 8:& #:& *"& 3-.& 2-%$2& 0$#"2-1& !"1H:& 0%:#&
/$*&3"&0%-!:%&2&-*"1-#"38/-=&0$/%"#-3"=L&;:0%"2&
ne moremo zanemariti posameznikov iz prej-
I3#-=&8*$1:*-#L&1:&4"&."&*"/%"*&3"&0$41"'-&2-%$2L&
/-&8$&3"!&3"&2$1#$L&3:&!$%:!$&4$/"."*-&0%"2:&
*%"4-H-#:& >;:3#"& -3& 2"4B:& $!:3#:3-=& 2:I;-3( 17
9"&f$="33:8$!&>3"%38-&"E&]311&"E&':3&"B':$%E&$;&E$B%F3E&
]:$&]*11&2$'&I3&%3636I3%38&"E&F"BE3&$;&B2%3E'-&IB'&
as confident and irreplaceable authors of solid tradi-
'*$2&%3O"%8*2O&E'B8C*2O&"28&>%"F'*F*2O&6"%'*"1&"%'E-&
which have been preserved and further developed in
':3& ;$11$]*2O& ']$& F32'B%*3E.& _2& K3%6"2& '3%%*'$%*3E&
this set of sources appeared a little earlier than on
W'"1*"2& '3%%*'$%*3E-& "1':$BO:& ]3& F"22$'& *O2$%3& *28*-
@*8B"1E&;%$6&':3&>%3@*$BE&F32'B%*3E.&b$]3@3%-&"FF$%8-
*2O&'$&':3&"@"*1"I13&F$2'36>$%"%C&E$B%F3E-&]3&F"22$'&
discus an established tradition of learning and practicing
of those skills. 17 Besides Johannes Liechtenauer
we can add other individuals who were active in
':3& >3%*$8& B2'*1& "I$B'& QXSSL& /28%3E& eB832-& M*F1"E&
H%3]E+32-& e$E'& @$2& 83%& MCEE32-& b"2,$& 4qI%*2O3%-&
!3*E'3%& N'3''23%-& N*O6B28& `*2O3F,-& !3*E'3%& _''-&
b"2E&5"1:$;;3%-&NF:2*2*O-&/28%3"E&D*3O2*'+3%-&!"%'*2&
bB28;318-& H3'3%& @$2& 4"2+*O-& eB8& D3]-& H"B1BE& 7"1-&
b"2E& D3F,oF:23%-& b"2E& @$2& N>3C3%-& b"2E& P$1+& "28&
Peter Falkner. 18 & /& I*'& 1"'3%-& ':3& E$ZF"1138& )$1$O23E3&
EF:$$1-& >%3F3838& IC& ':3& O*"2'E& $;& ;*O:'*2O& ECE'36E&
*2& W'"1C-& P*$%3& 83*& D*I3%*& "28& P*1*>>$& G"8*-& *2F1B83E&
distinguished individuals who were active later
$2-& EBF:& "E& /F:*113& !"%$++$-& /2'$2*$& !"2F*$1*2$-&
Angelo Viggiani and Giovanni dall’Agocchie. Camillo
/O%*>>$-& ':3& ;*%E'& ':3$%*E'& $;& ;32F*2O-& *E& 2$'& F$2E*8ered
as a representative of the Bolognese school.
Pedagogic methods of the Late Middle Ages are
not known to us. There are no known depicting sys-
'36"'*+38&F*%FB6E'"2F3E&"28&63':$8E&':%$BO:&]:*F:&
beginners would start to acquire and preserved fight-
*2O&E,*11E&"28-&;B%':3%&$2&B>O%"83&':3*%&,2$]138O3.&
This does not mean that the system did not exist. QV
5:3%3&3a*E'&]311&>%3E3%@38&*2E'%BF'*$2E-&3a>1"2"'*$2E&
$;&>%*2F*>13E-&ECE'36E&$;&;*O:'*2O&313632'E&9OB"%8E-&
17 See also Alfred Schaer, Die altdeutschen Fechter und Spielleute; Ein Beitrag zur
deutschen Culturgeschichte, Strassburg 1901; Martin Wierschin, Meister Johann
Liechtenauers Kunst des Fechtens, München 1965.
18" N//"5%'467/)/8"5,$49"Meister Johann Liechtenauers Kunst des langen Schwertes,
Frankfurt am Main 1985, p. 149.
19" N//" %$42" Z*=%" 728W,29" #8/E28P" F/$/9" Arte Gladiatoria Dimicandi, 15th Century
Swordsmanship of Master Filippo Vadi, Union City 2002; Guy Windsor, The
Swordsman's Companion; A Modern Training Manual for Medieval Longsword,
5,E>$%'+"`,$$%E/"QRRTL"#8W/E28W"q%D,'41,9";%8)$20,/-"C%$=W%19"Codex Wallerstein;
A Medieval Fighting Book from the 15th Century on the Longsword, Falchion, Dagger
and Wrestling, Boulder 2002.
M I L I T A R Y H I S T O R Y ! 39

Kg88:3L& l"3/$& OyB%-3':%L& ):-8*:%& D*:**3:%L&
D-'!>34& C-3':H/L& ):-8*:%& M**L& l"38& 5"1=$P-
P:%L&DH=3-3-'L&E34%:"8&4&0$I*:2"3#:&08-=$1$I/:'"&0$1$+"#"&0$8"!:-
.3-/"&2&$/$1-I;-3"=&B$#"( Ve
18" #$."5%'467/)/8"5,$49"Meister Johann Liechtenauers Kunst des langen Schwertes,
Frankfurt am Main 1985, str. 149.
19" #$."(/f"Z*=%"728W,29"#8/E28P"F/$/9"Arte Gladiatoria Dimicandi, 15th Century Swordsmanship
of Master Filippo Vadi, Union City 2002; Guy Windsor, The Swordsman's
Companion; A Modern Training Manual for Medieval Longsword, Highland Village
QRRTL"#8W/E28W"q%D,'41,9";%8)$20,/-"C%$=W%19"Codex Wallerstein; A Medieval Fighting
Book from the 15th Century on the Longsword, Falchion, Dagger and Wrestling,
Boulder 2002.
20 »Willtu kunst schowen sich link gen und recht mitt hawen und lick mitt rechten ist
das du starck gerst fechten«. Sigmund Ringeck, MS Dresd. C487, fol. 1v.
21 »Item so du mit ainem ringst in langen armen…«. Codex Wallerstein, Cod. I.6.4.2,
T. 80.
22 Npr. »Et se la punta li uoi far sentire/ va for de strada per trauerso passo/ fagli nel
peto tua ponta sentire.«. Filippo Vadi, De arte gladiatoria dimicandi, Codex 1324,
fondo Vittorio Emanuele della Biblioteca Nazionale di Roma, fol. 5v–6r.
23 »Item ob du ainen pauren wild schaczen so cass/ im dy haut zu samen an seinen
hals und stich/ im dar durch als hie memalt stet so maint/er man hab im denn
hals ab geschnitten und schat nit«. Codex Wallerstein, Cod. I.6.4.2, T. 148.
40 ! V O J A Š K A Z G O D O V I N A
FB'E-&F$2F3>'E-&6$@3632'E=-&F$6>13'3&'%"*2*2O&>%$F3-
8B%3E&"28&OB*831*23E.&5:3&3a>%3EE*$2E-&EBF:&"E&@$6&
5"O-& /1I3%-& _F:E-& H;1BO& $%& ?$%2:"]-& 7%B6>:"]-&
?]3%F,:"]-& NF:"C'13%& "28& NF:*113%& $%& 2"F:%"C{32-&
@3%E3'+32-& "IE3'+32-& 8B%F:]3F:E312-& 6B'*3%32-& 8B-
>1*3%32& $%& E'"I*13-& >B1E"'*@"-& *2E'"I*13-& >$E'"& I%3@3-&
832'*&8*&F:*2O:*"13-&>$%'"&8*&;3%%$-&>$E'"&8*&8$22"-&
>$E'"& ;%$2'"13-& 6B1*2311$-& ;32832'3-& 6$2'"2'3-&
EdB"136I%"'$-& O*$FF$& E'%3''$-& 3'F.& 83;*23& F13"%1C&
*832'*;*38& ;*O:'*2O& 313632'E-& F1"EE*;*38& IC& 6"E'3%E&
or authors into a developed system of fighting and
training. Their instructions and definitions reflect a
:*O:&13@31&$;&B283%E'"28*2O&':3&I*$63F:"2*FE- US and
"2"'$6C- UQ & >:CE*F"1& F:"%"F'3%*E'*FE& *2& F$6I"'- UU as
well as consideration for a psychological position of
on individual in combat circumstances. Uc
Martial arts of the Late Middle Ages are not an
$B'E'"28*2O&*EEB3&*2&':3&:*E'$%C&$;&F$6I"'-&2$%&]"E&
their tradition in that period a new phenomenon.
b$]3@3%-& ':3C& %3EB1'38& *2& "& 23]& ]"C& $;& F$6I"'& *2&
':3&`32"*EE"F3&"28&

9";:*:/&B$#"&B%:.&$%$+#"&"1-&%>2"3#"&7C-3':3? The opening of a fight without weapons or grappling (Ringen).
X.0:1#"2"&0$8*$0/"&2&B$#>&B%:.&$%$+#"&"1-&%>2"3#>( A technique in fighting without weapons or grappling.
M I L I T A R Y H I S T O R Y ! 41
N$*$UPhoto: Matej Smrekar N$*$UPhoto: Matej Smrekar

,$%-13:& 2:I;-3:& 0$.3:'"& 8%:43#:'"& 2:/"&
3-8$&0$8:B3$8*&2&.'$4$2-3-&B$#:2"3#"L&3#-=$2"&
*%"4-H-#"&3-&3$2"L&-.&3#-=&0"&8:&#:&2&3$2:!&2:/>&
%".2-1&3$2&3";-3&B$#:2"3#"L&*"/$&8&8*%:13-!&/$*&
=1"43-!&$%$+#:!(&@&0$.3:!&8%:43#:!&2:/>&8:&
3-&$B1-/$2"1"&/"/I3"&0$8:B3"&.2%8*&B$#:2"3#"L&
28:&3"I*:*:&8$&3"2:4:3:&+:&2&.'$43:#I-=&2-%-=(&
K:$B%:!:3#:3$& 0"& 1"=/$& 0$8*"2-!$& 2& *$& $B-
4$B#:&!3$+-;3-&0%:=$4&2&8-8*:!"*-."H-#$&B$%-1-
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-3&$B#"21#"3#:&4:1&$&>;:3#>&-3&2"4B-&B$#:2"3#"L&
oblikovanje tradicij bojevanja in širjenje zna-
3#"&B$%-13-=&2:I;-3&2&H-2-13$&4%>+B$(&5>4-&/$%:nite
spremembe bojnega polja so odprle novo
poglavje v vojaški zgodovini. Rekonstrukcija
.'$4$2-38/-=&:2%$08/-=&B$%-13-=&-3&B$#3-=&2:-
I;-3&+:&2&-.=$4-I;>&3:&!$%:&2&0$0$13$8*-&$B>-
4-*-&*:=&2:I;-3(&K#-=$2&3"!:3&#:&2&4"3"I3#:!&
;"8>&3:80%:#:!1#-2L&I/$41#-2&-3&3:>0%"2-;:3(&O$&
%".>!:2"3#"&.'$4$2-38/:&4:4-I;-3:&_&'!$*3:&
-3& 0-83:& _L& .'$4$2-38/-=& 4%>+B:3-=& 0%$H:8$2&
-3&%".2$#"&;1$2:I/:&!-81-&0"&8:&1"=/$&8;"8$!"&
4$/$01#:!$&$B&0%:>;:2"3#>&0-83-=&-3&'!$*3-=&
2-%$2& $& *:=& 2:I;-3"=& *:%& .& 2"4B$L& /-& 2/1#>;>-
#:& -3*:%0%:*-%"3#:L& 0%:-./>I"3#:L& 2%:43$*:3#:L&
primerjanje in izvajanje. V\
/$,0"5"#
K"%"I;"#$;:&."3-!"3#:&."&B$%-13$&-3&B$#3$&
zgodovino evropskega srednjega veka ter vse
2:;#:& 2/1#>;:2"3#:& 1"-;3:& ."-3*:%:8-%"3:& #"2nosti
v iskanje in interpretiranje virov ponuja
3$2"&-.=$4-I;"&."&0%:2%:43$*:3#:&4$.4"#I3#-=&
>'$*$2-*:2&-3&8/1:0$2(&A%"2&*"/$&8$&3$2:&*:=-
3$1$'-#:& $!$'$;-1:& B$1#I:& -3*:%4-8H-01-3"%3$&
0%-4$B-2"3#:& -3& $B4:1$2"3#:& 0$4"*/$2L& /"%& #:&
3"&0$41"'-&$=%"3#:3-=&2-%$2&0%-0:1#"1$&4$&>'$-
*$2-*:2L&/-&8$&2&!"%8-;:!&0$40%1:&0$*%:B$&0$&
omenjenem prevrednotenju sklepov.
D/1:0-& $& B$%-13$& 3:0-8!:3:!& -3& *"/*-;3$&
."/%3:1:!&8%:43#:2:I/:!&B$#:23-/>L&/-&8:&."-
3"I"&1:&3"&0%:!$;&82$#:'"&$%$+#"&0$&4$1+-3-&-3&
*:+-& *:%& 3"& 2:;#$& *:1:83$& !$;& -3& 2.4%+1#-2$8*L&
4$&3:/:&!:%:&2:1#"#$&I:&4"3:8L&;:0%"2&28:&2:;&
0-83-=& -3& '!$*3-=& 2-%$2& $0$."%#"& 3"& 2-8$/$&
B$%-13$&$8!-I1#:3#:&-3&*"/*-;3:&>80$8$B1#:3$8*-&
B$#:23-/"L&801$=&.>3"#&$/2-%#"&2$#3:&-3&B$#3:'"&
polja. Vojaška struktura od posameznega roda
."=*:2"&3#:!>&4$1$;:3:&2:I;-3:&-3&4-8H-01-3$L&
24 Gl. Bartlomiej Walczak, The AGISE Research Method, v: Maîtres & techniques de
combat à la fin du Moyen Age et au début de la renaissance (ur. Fabrice Cognot),
7%8,4"QRRB9"4)8."@Q@O@T@.
42 ! V O J A Š K A Z G O D O V I N A
material sources on the above mentioned martial
"28&F$6I"'&"%'E-&"E&]311&"E&]*':&':3&>%"F'*F3&':3%3$;&
]:*F:&*2F1B83E&*2'3%>%3'"'*$2E-&'3E'*2O-&3@"1B"'*$2E-&
comparisons and performance. U[
Summary
The increasing interest in the martial history of
':3&!*8813&/O3E&*2&3-&"E&]311&"E&':3&*2F%3"E*2O&
involvement of the interested laic public in the in-
'3%>%3'"'*$2&$;&E$B%F3E-&$;;3%&23]&E'"%'*2O&>$*2'E&;$%&
re-assessment of existing findings and conclusions.
New technologies have enabled better interdiscipli-
2"%C& 8"'"& "FdB*E*'*$2& "28& >%$F3EE3E& ]:*F:-& $2& ':3&
I"E*E& $;& 3a*E'*2O& E$B%F3E-& :"@3& %3EB1'38& *2& ;*28*2OE&
that in many aspects support the need to re-evaluate
conclusions.
The conclusions on martially ignorant and tac-
'*F"11C& *23;;*F*32'& 638*3@"1& F$6I"'"2'E-& ]:$& %31*38&
$21C&$2&':3&EB>3%*$%*'C&$;&':3*%&]3">$2-&"E&]311&"E&$2&
':3*%&>:CE*F"1&E'%32O':&"28&328B%"2F3-&"%3&>"%'*"11C&
E'*11&@"1*8&'$8"C.&b$]3@3%-&"2&*2F%3"E*2O&"6$B2'&$;&
written and material sources indicates the existance
$;&"&:*O:1C&3;;*F*32'&F$6I"'"2'-&*2&'3%6E&$;&F$6I"'&
"28&'"F'*FE-&3E>3F*"11C&I3C$28&':3&;%"63]$%,&$;&]"%time
and battlefield. While the military structure
requires certain qualities and discipline from indi-
@*8B"1&$%83%E&;$%&':3&;B1;*11632'&$;&':3*%&'"E,E-&*28*-
@*8B"1E&*2&8B31E&9>%*@"'3&$%&13O"1=-&;*O:'*2O&3a3%F*E3E&
and competitions need much more to be successful.
They need a comprehensive training in martial arts
and tactics. If to this we add the element of self-de-
;32F3-&'C>*F"1&$;&"11&>3%*$8E&$;&:B6"2&:*E'$%C-&]3&F"2&
look at the level of martial arts in the Late Middle
Ages from a new perspective.
b$]3@3%-& F$6I"'& 3;;*F*32FC& F"22$'& %3EB1'& ;%$6&
extraordinary physical structure and talent of an
individual alone. An existing system of passing the
knowledge down and oriented exercise is required.
Analyses and reconstructions of written and material
sources offer skillful pedagogic and didactical guidelines
and methods which enabled a student to make
"& >%$O%3EE& *2& l"2& :$2$B%"I13& "%'& $;& ;*O:'*2Of.& 5:3&
system of martial arts is introduced as a complete
system in which an instructor and his student have
their own definite roles. They are in a traditionally
"28&>%$;3EE*$2"11C&E3'&%31"'*$2E:*>-&I"E38&$2&6B'B"1&
respect and shared responsibility. The sources stress
:*O:&>:CE*F"1-&*2'3113F'B"1-&632'"1&"28&6$%"1&E'"28ards
which a student had to meet in order to develop
24 See Bartlomiej Walczak, The AGISE Research Method, in: Maîtres & techniques de
combat à la fin du Moyen Age et au début de la renaissance (ed. Fabrice Cognot),
7%8,4"QRRB9"??."@Q@O@T@.

4"&1"=/$&-.2"#"&3"1$':L&0$8"!:.3-/&0"&2&42$-
B$#-=& 7."8:B3-=& "1-& 0%"23-=?L& 2"4B:3-=& B$#-=&
-3&3"&*:/!$2"3#-=&0$*%:B>#:&2:1-/$&2:;L&4"&#:&
1"=/$&>80:I:3(&,-*-&!$%"&H:1$2-*$&>80$8$B1#:3&
2&B$%-13-=&2:I;-3"=&-3&*"/*-/-(&^:&4$4"!$&I:&
:1:!:3*&8"!$$B%"!B:L&.3";-1:3&."&28"&$B4$-
B#"& ;1$2:I/:& .'$4$2-3:L& 1"=/$& $40%:!$& 3$2&
0$'1:4& 3"& 8*$03#$& B$%-13:& 2:I;-3:& 2& 0$.3:!&
srednjem veku.
Vsekakor pa borilna in bojna usposobljenost
ne moreta nastati le na podlagi opevane nad-
0$20%:;3:& *:1:83:& %".2-*$8*-& -3& 3"4"%#:3$8*-&
0$8"!:.3-/"L&0$*%:B:3&#:&4:1>#$;&8-8*:!&0%:-
3"I"3#"&.3"3#"&-3&>8!:%#:3:&2"4B:(&E3"1-."&-3&
%:/$38*%>/H-#"&2-%$2L&*"/$&0-83-=&/$*&'!$*3-=L&
0$4"&80%:*3"&0:4"'$I/"&-3&4-4"/*-;3"&2$4-1"&
-3&!:*$4:L&0$&/"*:%-=&#:&2"#:3:H&"1-&>;:3:H&3"-
0%:4$2"1&2&m;"8*-2%:43-&2:I;-3-&B$#:2"3#"n(&D-8-
*:!&B$%-13-=&-3&B$#3-=&2:I;-3&8:&0%:48*"2-&/$*&
H:1$2-*&8-8*:!&.&$B1-/$2"3-!"&21$'"!"&>;:3H"&
-3&>;-*:1#"L&!:4&/"*:%-!"&$B8*"#"&*%"4-H-$3"1-
3$&-3&8*%$/$23$&4$'$2$%#:3&$43$8L&/-&*:!:1#-&
na medsebojnem spoštovanju in deljeni odgo-
2$%3$8*-(&@-%-&0$>4"%#"#$&2-8$/:&*:1:83:L&-3*:-
1:/*>"13:L&4>I:23:&-3&!$%"13:&0$'$#:L&/-&#-=&#:&
!$%"1&-.0$13#:2"*-&>;:3:H&0%-&%".2-#"3#>&B$%-1-
3-=&2:I;-3L&*:%&3"1"'"#$&$4'$2$%3$&%"23"3#:&8&
0%-4$B1#:3-!&.3"3#:!&-3&$42%";"#$&$4&3"8-1#"(
Pozni srednji vek ne pozna revolucije v kon-
H:0*>&B$#:2"3#"&8&=1"43-!&$%$+#:!&"1-&2&!-8:1nosti
bojevnika. Vendar v omenjenem obdobju
3"8*"#"&28:&2:;&0-83-=&2-%$2L&/-&8:&8&I-%#:3#:!&
*-8/"& 2& RS(& 8*$1(& I:& $/%:0-#$& -3& B$%-13$& 8P:%$&
0%:!"/3:#$&'1$B1#:&2&H-2-13$&8P:%$&4%>+B:(&5$&
201-2"&3"&2:;#$&8-8*:!"*-."H-#$&B$%-13-=&-3&B$#-
3-=&2:I;-3L&3"8*"3:/&-3&/$38$1-4"H-#$&B$%-13-=&
*%"4-H-#& -3& 0$2:;"3#:& I*:2-1"& I$1& *:%& >2"#"3#:&
>;:3#"& -3& 2"4B:& B$%-13-=& 2:I;-3& 2& 4%>+B:3$&
sprejeto pojmovanje osebne omikanosti.
:*E&6"%'*"1&E,*11E-&"28&]:*F:&%3dB*%38&"&%3E>$2E*I13&
attitude to the knowledge gained and at the same
time deterred from violence.
The Late Middle Ages did not experience a revolution
in the concept of fighting with cold weapons
$%& *2& ':3& 632'"1*'C& $;& F$6I"'"2'E.& b$]3@3%-& ':*E&
period saw an increase in the number of written
E$B%F3E& ]:*F:-& 8B3& '$& ':3& 83@31$>632'& $;& ':3& >%3EE&
*2&':3&QR':&F32'B%C-&6B1'*>1*38&"28&>BE:38&':3&6"%tial
sphere deeper into the civil sphere of the society.
5:*E&*2;1B32F38&':3&1"%O3%&ECE'36"'*+"'*$2&$;&6"%'*"1&
"%'E-&':3&3E'"I1*E:632'&"28&F$2E$1*8"'*$2&$;&6"%'*"1&
'%"8*'*$2&"28&':3&*2F%3"E3&*2&':3&2B6I3%&$;&EF:$$1E-&
as well as the introduction of studying and practicing
of martial arts into socially accepted comprehension
of personal cultivation.
M I L I T A R Y H I S T O R Y ! 43

44 ! V O J A Š K A Z G O D O V I N A

;70)'#7,7&$&&170417,7>?&
#)&$4)'6+"+$&L`arte dell`armizare?&$#.&ABAC
An Examination of Fiore dei Liberi and His Treatises
Describing L`arte dell`Armizare, c. 1410
!
D AV I D M. CVET
B.Sc., Founder and Head Instructor
%E6I4@J'1K'L;C1M46>'$4IA456='$6CNA6='%CNO9'P7Q'R;M1>N'SND9'7>I'K=11C9'"1C1>N19'#+'$TU'8)89'V6>6I6W'4?@6A=B'I65AIDE54NGH@6A=DE1@
U0,*"%"#
9"0>I;-3-& N-$%:#"& 4:-& &-./".>#:!$&;"8*&8&8/%B-
3$&%:/$38*%>/H-#$&-3&0$3$23$&$+-2-*2-#$&B$%-1-
3:&2:I;-3:L&/-&#$&#:&$0-8"1&2&82$#-=&%".0%"2"=&.&
naslovom Flos Duellatorum in Fior di Battaglia.
5"&80-8&%".-8/>#:&!$+"&0$&-!:3>&Fiore in pred-
8*"21#"&/%"*/$&0%-!:%#"13$&"3"1-.$&*%:=&%".1-;-H&
razprave. Te razprave veljajo za pomembne te-
!:1#:&4"3"I3#-=&%".-8/"2&-3&%:/$38*%>/H-#&.'$-
4$2-38/-=&B$%-13-=&2:I;-3&."=$4"&."%"4-&82$#:&
.B-%/:&-1>8*%"H-#L&/-&3:2:%#:*3$&#"83$&0%-;"#$&$&
-.%$;-1>& *:& 2:I;-3:L& 28"/$& -1>8*%"H-#$& 0"& 80%:mljajo
povedna besedila.
!"#$%&'()'*'+',(N-$%:&4:-&2"3#:L&"%6*+"%3.
/$,0"5"#
9"0>I;-3-& N-$%:#"& 4:-& &-./".>#:!$&;"8*&8&8/%B-
3$&%:/$38*%>/H-#$&-3&0$3$23$&$+-2-*2-#$&B$%-1-
3:&2:I;-3:L&/-&#$&#:&$0-8"1&2&82$#-=&%".0%"2"=&.&
naslovom Flos Duellatorum in Fior di Battaglia.
A%-;>#$;-& 8:8*"2:/& 0$8/>I"& 0%-B1-+"*-& !$+"& .&
imenom Fiore in predstavlja kratko primer-
#"13$& "3"1-.$& *%:=& %".1-;-H& 3#:'$2:& %".0%"2:L&
/-&4"3:8&2:1#"#$&."&*:!:1#3-&2-%&0%-&%".-8/"2"=&
-3& %:/$38*%>/H-#"=& 8*"%-=& ."=$43-=& B$%-13-=&
2:I;-3(&K#-=$2"&3"#2:;#"&2%:43$8*&#:&!$%4"&2&
.B-%/-&-1>8*%"H-#L&/-&3:2:%#:*3$&#"83$&0%-;"#$&$&
Abstract
Fiore dei Liberi’s legacy created 600 years ago is
:$2$B%38&*2&':3&UQ st century with the careful reconstruction
and resurrection of the fighting art he described
in his treatises entitled “Flos Duellatorum”
and “Fior di Battaglia”. This paper will explore the
man who bore the name Fiore and conduct a brief
comparative analysis of the three versions of the
treatise. The treatises are considered important cornerstones
in today’s research and reconstruction of
historical Western fighting arts given their collection
of illustrations possessing remarkable clarity in con-
@3C*2O&':3&F$2F3>'E&*2&':3&"%'-&"28&':3&*2;$%6"'*@3&
text accompanying each illustration.
Keywords:&P*$%3&83*&D*I3%*-&6*1*'"%C&:*E'$%C-&:*E-
'$%*F"1&;32F*2O-&"%6$B%38&F$6I"'-&j3E'3%2&6"%'*"1&
"%'E-&E]$%8E-&"%6E-&"%6$B%-&O%">>1*2O-&"%6*+"%3.
Synopsis
Fiore dei Liberi’s legacy created 600 years ago is
:$2$B%38&*2&':3&UQ st century with the careful reconstruction
and resurrection of the fighting art he described
in his treatises entitled Flos Duellatorum and
Fior di Battaglia. This paper will explore the man
who bore the name Fiore and conduct a brief comparative
analysis of the three versions of the treatise.
It is evident in the Western fighting arts community
that the treatises are considered as important cornerstones
in today’s research and reconstruction of
historical Western fighting arts. The reasons are
2B63%$BE-&IB'&>3%:">E&':3*%&O%3"'3E'&@"1B3&*E&':3*%&
M I L I T A R Y H I S T O R Y ! 45

$3H:0*-=&N-$%:#:2:'"&8-8*:!"L&4$4"*3$&0"&#-=&
pojasnjujejo povedna besedila. 1
Y&& i:**gL 5 »Fiore Furlan de Ciuida
dostria« v razpravi Morgan 6 in »Fior furlano
dei liberi de Ciuidal dostria« v »alter prologus«
v razpravi Pisani-Dossi. Zapis v Pisani-Dossi
1"=/$& 0%:2:4:!$& /$*& mN>%1"3& N-$%:& -.& 4%>+--
3:&")/>',1."`/3"4282+',>"8%W,412&%$',>"?82-/1)2&"-/"'%"&2ljo
tudi na spletu. Marco Rubboli, Luca Cesari, Flos Duellatorum – Manuale di
arte del combattimento del XV secolo, Rimini 2002; Massimo Malipiero, Il Fiore
di battaglia di Fiore dei Liberi da Cividale, Videm 2006; Robert Lovett, The Exiles
Fiore Project9" >))?fggXXX.)>/6/j,$/4.28Eg],28/782-/=)g782-/=).>)0" _2D,41%'2" @R."
maja 2008); Hermes Michelini, Mich Shire, Fiore de’ Liberi, The Flower of Battles,
http://www.aemma.org/onlineResources/liberi/wildRose/fiore.html (obiskano 21.
-%'*%8-%"QRRSb."72$/E")/E%"-/"D,$%")%")/0%"?8/+0/)"8%W?8%&/"&"()/&,$',>"3$%'1,>"'%"
spletu: David M. Cvet, The Measure of a Master Swordsman, v: Journal of Western
Martial Art, http://www.ejmas.com/jwma/articles/2005/jwmaart _ cvet _ 0105.
htm (obiskano 28. avgusta 2008); Matt Easton, Fiore dei Liberi, http://www.fioredeiliberi.org/fiore/
(obiskano 20. julija 2008); Russ Howe, Fiore dei Liberi: Origins
and Motivations, v: Journal of Western Martial Art, http://www.ejmas.com/jwma/
articles/2008/jwmaart _ howe _ 0808.htm (obiskano 4. septembra 2008).
Q""""],28/"&"8%W?8%&%>"',1+%8"'/",W+%"*8%+'/E%",0/'%"&/(3,'/."k0/'-%"-2"?8/?824)2"12)"
l`arte dell`armizare, na kratko armizare.
3 Zaenkrat še ne poznamo nobene znanstvene študije razprav ali osebnosti Fioreja
+/,"Z,D/8,."`4/"8%W?2$2V$-,&2"E8%+,&2"2")/-")/0,"-/"8/W*$)%)"&/3-,>"41*?,'41,>"8%W,412-
&%$',>"?8,W%+/&%'-"?24%0/W',12&"&"()/&,$',>"(2$%>",'"%1%+/0,-%>"D28,$',>"&/(3,'"
?2"&4/0"4&/)*9"&1$-*3'29"%"'/"WE2$-"&"'%()/),>f"e>/"cj,$/4"MFFU"_`;b9"N=>2$%"#$%diatoria
(VB), Compagnia de’Malipiero (Italija), Chicago Swordplay Guild (ZDA) in
U1%+/0,-%"/&82?41,>"48/+'-/&/(1,>"D28,$',>"&/(3,'"_G%'%+%b.
T" e8/'*)'2" 2D4)%-%-2" )8," W'%'/" 8%W$,3,=/" ],28/-/&/E%" +/$%9" ,0/'2&%'/" ?2" WD,81%>9"
v katerih so shranjene. Analiza razprav sledi v nadaljevanju tega spisa. Zaradi
$%V-/E%"8%W*0/&%'-%"'%-")/")8,"8%W$,3,=/"&4%-"'%()/-/02f"8%W?8%&%"#/))P6Z*+X,E9"
FN"Z*+X,E"s`@K9"1,"4/"'%>%-%"&"F*W/-*"a2>'%"7%*$%"#/))P-%9"Z24"U'E/$/49"YHUL"
8%W?8%&%"F28E%'9"FN"F."KSK9"G'-,V',=%"7,/8?2,')6F28E%'9"h/X"r281"M,)P9"YHUL"
8%W?8%&%"7,4%',6H244,"&"WD,81,"]8%'=/4=%"h2&%),-%.
!" F*W/-"a2>'%"7%*$%"#/))P-%9"Z24"U'E/$/49"],28"+,";%))%E$,%f"FN"Z*+X,E"s`"@K.
B" G'-,V',=%"7,/8?2,')"F28E%'9"h/X"r2819"],28"+,";%))%E$,%9"FN"F.KSK.
:"""mH/,"Z,D/8,n9"1%8"?20/',"m,W"+8*V,'/"Z,D/8,n9"?2&/9"+%"-/",0/$%"+8*V,'%"Z,D/8,"&"),4)/0"
3%4*"+2$23/'"?$/0,(1,"4)%)*49"&/'+%8"4)2?'-%"'-,>2&/E%"?2$2V%-%"',"8%W&,+'%",W"
W%?,4%'/E%"D8/W"'%+%$-'-/"?2+82D'/"8%W,41%&/"*4)8/W',>"2D3,'41,>"4?,42&",'"+21*-
0/')2&"&"78/0%8,%==*9"`,+0*",'"t/+%+*."
S"""e%"J8%W%"-/",W"m%$)/8"?82$2E*4n"8%W?8%&/"7,4%',6H244,."N%0"'%W,&"m0/4/8n"D,"$%>12"
D,$"/'%1"'%W,&*"m4,8n9"1,"4/"*?28%D$-%"+%'+%'/4",'"?20/',"02V%"?$/0,(1/E%",W&28%."
46 ! V O J A Š K A Z G O D O V I N A
collection of illustrations possessing remarkable
F1"%*'C&*2&F$2@3C*2O&':3&F$2F3>'E&*2&':3&"%'-&"28&':3&
*2;$%6"'*@3&'3a'&"FF$6>"2C*2O&3"F:&*11BE'%"'*$2-&'$gether
creating a recipe as a comprehensive resource
EB>>$%'*2O&'$8"CfE&%3E3"%F:-&>%"F'*F3&"28&%3F$2E'%BFtion
of historical Western fighting arts. 1
The Man
Despite the significant impact Fiore’s treatise has
had on the modern reconstruction of historical fight-
*2O&"%'E-&*2&>"%'*FB1"%-&"%6*+"%3- U very little is known
of the man who bore the name Fiore dei Liberi. To
8"'3-&O*@32&':3&3a'32E*@3&"28&$2O$*2O&%3E3"%F:&I3*2O&
conducted world-wide by a variety of historical fencing
schools and academies 3 the only definitive source
for Fiore’s biography has been the prologue written
by Fiore himself contained in each of the three versions
of the treatise. 4
5:3&'%3"'*E3-&"B':$%38&IC&P*$%3&:*6E31;-&E'C13E&:*6&
as »Fior Furlan de Ciuida dostria« in the Getty’s 5
>%$1$OB3-& |P*$%3& PB%1"2& 83& 0*B*8"& 8$E'%*"}& *2& ':3&
Morgan’s version 6 and »Fior furlano dei liberi de
Ciuidal dostria« in the »alter prologus« in the Pisani-
Dossi version. 7 The Pisani-Dossi phrase translates
into »Fiore Friuli of the family of the Liberi from
0*@*8"& 8f_E'%*"}- 8 which is commonly abbreviated
1 In recent years, a number of books have been published containing translations
of Fiore’s works as well as interpretations of the fighting techniques. Several related
research projects are also available online. Marco Rubboli, Luca Cesari, Flos
Duellatorum – Manuale di arte del combattimento del XV secolo, Rimini 2002;
Massimo Malipiero, Il Fiore di battaglia di Fiore dei Liberi da Cividale, Udine 2006;
Robert Lovett, The Exiles Fiore Project9">))?fggXXX.)>/6/j,$/4.28Eg],28/782-/=)g
782-/=).>)0" _%==/44/+"F%P"@R9"QRRSbL"5/80/4"F,=>/$,',9"F,=>"N>,8/9"Fiore de’
Liberi, The Flower of Battles, http://www.aemma.org/onlineResources/liberi/
wildRose/fiore.html (accessed January 21, 2008). In addition, the subject has
been discussed in several recent online articles: David M. Cvet, The Measure of
a Master Swordsman, in: Journal of Western Martial Art, http://www.ejmas.com/
jwma/articles/2005/jwmaart _ cvet _ 0105.htm (accessed August 28, 2008);
Matt Easton, Fiore dei Liberi, http://www.fioredeiliberi.org/fiore/ (accessed July
20, 2008); Russ Howe, Fiore dei Liberi: Origins and Motivations, in: Journal of
Western Martial Art, http://www.ejmas.com/jwma/articles/2008/jwmaart _
howe _ 0808.htm (accessed September 4, 2008).
2 Fiore never revealed a formal name of the art in the treatises, simply referring to it
as l`arte dell`armizare which is briefly referred to as armizare.
3 At this time, there has been no formal academic study of the treatises or on Fiore
dei Liberi. All materials available on this subject are the result of significant collective
research efforts by individuals within a number of martial arts schools and
academies worldwide, including but not limited to: The Exiles CMMA (UK), Schola
Gladiatoria (UK), Compagnia de'Malipiero (Italy), Chicago Swordplay Guild (USA)
and the Academy of European Medieval Martial Arts (Canada).
4 At the present time, there are three known versions of Fiore's work, so named by
the collections where the treatises reside. Further examination of the treatises
occurs later in this paper. However, for the purpose of convenience at this point,
the three versions are: Getty-Ludwig version, MS Ludwig XV13, located in the John
7%*$"#/))P"F*4/*09"Z24"U'E/$/49"dNUL"F28E%'"&/84,2'9"FN"F."KSK9"7,/8?2,')6
F28E%'"Z,D8%8P9"h/X"r281"M,)P9"dNUL"7,4%',6H244,"&/84,2'9"2J")>/"]8%'=/4=2"h2&%),"
collection.
!" a2>'"7%*$"#/))P"F*4/*09"Z24"U'E/$/49"],28"+,";%))%E$,%f"FN"Z*+X,E"s`"@K.
B" e>/"7,/8?2,')"F28E%'"Z,D8%8P"h/X"r2819"],28"+,";%))%E$,%9"FN"F.KSK.
7 Francesco Novati, Flos duellatorum: Il Fior di battaglia di maestro Fiore dei Liberi
da Premariacco, Bergamo 1902.
S" mH/,"Z,D/8,n"X>,=>"0/%'4"m2J")>/"J%0,$P"2J")>/"Z,D/8,n",0?$,/4")>%)")>/"Z,D/8,"J%0,$P"
had some measure of a noble status at that time. However, the extent of their status
is not clear from what is written without conducting further detailed research
2'"8/$/&%')"0*',=,?%$"8/=28+4"%'+"+2=*0/')4"J2*'+",'"78/0%8,%==29"d+,'/"%'+"

0%:2$4>&'1"8-&m'$80$4&,:3:4:**$&-.&=-I:&;-1&0%-&I*:2-13-=&-*"1-#"38/-=&-3&3:!I/-=&
!$#8*%-=(&X.#"2-1&#:L&4"&8:&#:&>80$8"B1#"1&-3&B$-
#:2"1&2:;&/$*&\T&1:*( 10 &i1:4:&3"&;"8L&/$&#:&.";:1&
0-8"*-&%".0%"2$L&RT(&P:B%>"%#"&R\TWL&-3&0%:40$-
8*"2/$L&4"&#:&.";:1&*%:3-%"*-&-3&!:;:2"*-&0%-&RT&
1:*-=L&B-&B-1&*$%:#&2&;"8>&0-8"3#"&%".0%"2:&8*"%&
okrog šestdeset let.
N-$%:& #:& 3"0-8"1L& 4"& 8:& #:& >;-1& 0%-& %".1-;3-=&
!$#8*%-=& 2& %".1-;3-=& /%"#-=& 3"& 2:1-/:& $8:B3:&
8*%$I/:& -3& 8& *:!& 3"!-'3-1L& 4"& #:& 1"=/$& ;%0"1&
-.& 4%>+-38/-=& 2-%$2L& /"%& /"+:& 28"#& 4$1$;:3$&
%"2:3&P-3"3;3:&!$;-L&.3";-13:&."&.!:%3$&0%:-
!$+3$&01:!-I/$&4%>+-3$(&K"2:4:1&#:L&4"&8:&#:&
>80$8"B1#"1&0%-&I*:2-13-=&!$#8*%-=&-3&>;:3#"/-=&
*:%& *>4-& 3"& 42$%-=& 2:1-/-=& '$80$4$2L& 0%-3H:2L&
2$#2$4L&!:#3-=&'%$P$2L&'%$P$2L&2-*:.$2&-3&01:-
!-;:2(& & A$& -!:3>& #:& $!:3-1& 8"!$& :3:'"& $4&
!$#8*%$2L& 0%-& /"*:%-=& 8:& #:& >;-1L& -3& *$& 8"!$& 2&
%".1-;-H-& A-8"3-[O$88-J& mEt maxime a magistro
Johane dicto suueno qui fuit scholaris magistri
Nicholai de toblem mexinensis diocesisnL&/"%&8:&
2&0%:2$4>&'1"8-&m-3&0%:428:!&!$#8*:%&f$="33:8&
D>>:3>8L 11 & /-& #:& B-1& >;:3:H& !$#8*%"& K-H=$1"8"&
9 Friuli je pokrajina na severovzhodu Italije in na meji s Slovenijo, znana tudi kot
Furlanija (slovensko) ali Friaul"_'/0(12b9"4"48/+,(3/0"&"`,+0*."`%4"78/0%8,%==2"
-/"?8,D$,V'2"@K"10"&W>2+'2"2+"`,+0%."t/+%+"$/V,"2D"8/1,"h%+,V%9"?8,D$,V'2"@!"10"
vzhodno od Vidma in blizu meje s Slovenijo.
@R"t/?8%&"-/"&4/0")8/0"8%W$,3,=%0"8%W?8%&/"41*?'%",4)%")/0%9"&/'+%8$/"2D4)%-%"'/1%-"
8%W$,1."h%"?8,0/89"&"8%W?8%&,"7,4%',6H244,"D/4/+,$2"?8%&,9"+%"-/"],28/-/&%"D2-/&',-
(1%"1%8,/8%")8%-%$%"&/3"12)"!R"$/)9"&"41$%+*"W"8%W?8%&%0%"#/))P",'"F28E%'"?%"-/"
)8%-%$%"&/3"12)"TR"$/)."e2"$%>12"?20/',9"+%"42"8212?,4,"'%4)%$,"&"8%W$,3',>"$/),>",'"
W%)2"8%W$,3,=/"',42"12?,-/"%$,"8%W$,3,=/"/'/"4%0/",W&,8'/"8%W?8%&/9")/0&/3"?8,0/8,"
neodvisno sestavljenih Fiorejevih razprav,. Morda je vsaka od njih nastala za drug
namen ali pokrovitelja.
@@"e2"-/"D,$"&,8"4,$2&,),>"?2$/0,1"&"4&/)*"WE2+2&,'41/E%"0/3/&%'-%.";/4/+%"m4**/'2n"
$%>12"?20/',9"+%"-/"D,$"02-4)/8"a2>%''/4"'/0(1/E%"?28/1$%9"'%)%'3'/-/"4"u&%D-
41/E%."72"/',"2+")/28,-"D,"D,$"a2>%''/4"u&%D41,"$%>12"a2>%''/4"Z,/=>)/'%*/89"02--
4)/8"0/3/&%'-%",W"48/+,'/"@T."4)2$/)-%."e2+%"182'2$2E,-%"4/"'/"*-/0%"'%-D2$-/9"4%-"
4/"-/"],28/"&"),4)/0"3%4*"120%-"82+,$.""H%"D2"W0/+%"(/"&/3-%9"-/"],28/"W%?,4%$9"+%"-/"
D,$"02-4)/8"a2>%''/4"*3/'/="02-4)8%"h,12$%-%"e2D$/041/E%9"1%8"D,"?20/',$29"+%"-/"
D,$"02-4)/8"h,12$%-"Z,/=>)/'%*/8-/&"*3,)/$-9"&/'+%8"&"'/0(1,>"8%W?8%&%>"',"20/'-
to Fiore dei Liberi. The prologue tells us that he
]"E& ;%$6& 0*@*8"& 8f_E'%*"-& ]:*F:& I31$2O38& '$& ':3&
H"'%*"%F:"'3&$;&/dB*13*"-&"28&':3&E$2&$;&|63E3%&I323-
83''$&83&1"&F"E"8"&83*&1*I3%*&8"&>%363%O*"O$}- V translated
as »Sir Benedetto of the House of the Liberi
from Premariacco«. The village of Premariacco and
':3&'$]2&$;&0*@*8"&8f_E'%*"-&2$]&,2$]2&"E&0*@*8"13-&
I$':& 3a*E'& '$8"C& *2& ':3& %3O*$2& $;& P%*B1*- 10 an area
with its own unique cultural and historical identity.
Cividale del Friuli is the last known residence of
Fiore based on the extracts from the prologues.
Fiore does not reveal his birth date nor year in
"2C&@3%E*$2&$;&':3&'%3"'*E3.&b$]3@3%-&*'&*E&3E'*6"'38&
that he was born some time around 1350. This estimated
year becomes more apparent upon further
examination of the text extracted from the prologue.
He wrote that he had possessed a natural combative
"I*1*'C&"'&"&C$B2O&"O3-&:"@*2O&13;'&0*@*8"13&'$&13"%2&
more advanced fencing techniques and to increase
:*E& E,*11E& IC& '%"@31*2O& '$& 6"2C& >%$@*2F3E-& '%"*2*2O&
under many Italian and German masters. He stated
that he had been training and fighting for more than
[S& C3"%E- 11 and given the timing when he started
]%*'*2O& ':3& '%3"'*E3& $2& QS& P3I%B"%C& Q[SV& "28& ':3&
assumption that he started training and fencing at
':3& "O3& $;& QS& C3"%E-& ]$B18& 6",3& P*$%3& E$63]:3%3&
around sixty years of age at the time of writing the
treatise.
Fiore wrote that he trained under different mas-
'3%E&*2&8*;;3%32'&>%$@*2F3E&"'&O%3"'&>3%E$2"1&3a>32E3-&
implying that he was able to draw upon family resources
indicating some level of financial stamina
*2& ':3& 13"E'-& *28*F"'*@3& $;& "& 6$83E'& 2$I13& ;"6*1C.&
He indicated that he trained under many masters
"28&EF:$1"%E-&"E&]311&"E&*2&':3&F$B%'E&$;&O%3"'&O32-
'13632-& >%*2F3E-& 8B,3E-& 6"%dB*E3E-& F$B2'E-& ,2*O:'E&
and squires. He mentioned by name only one of the
masters he studied under and only in the Pisani-
4$EE*&@3%E*$2-&|,4"?>8%4/",4"/j)8%=)/+"J820")>/"m%$)/8"?82$2E*4n",'")>/"7,4%',6H244,"&/84,2'.";P"
&,8)*/"2J")>/"),)$/"m0/4/8n",4"'2)"*'$,1/")>/"),)$/"2J"mN,8n"*4/+")2+%P9"X>,=>",'+,=%)/4"
a man of noble origin.
10 Friuli is a region located in the north-eastern portion of Italy neighbouring Slovenia,
known as Furlanija (Slovenian) or Friaul (German), with Udine as its capital
=,)P."e>/"&,$$%E/"2J"78/0%8,%==2",4"$2=%)/+"%??82j,0%)/$P"@K10"/%4)"2J"d+,'/."M,&,dale
del Friuli is adjacent to the river Natisone, approximately 15km east of Udine
and close to the border of Slovenia.
11 Despite the common subject across the three versions of the treatise, some dif-
J/8/'=/4"+2"4*8J%=/."]28"/j%0?$/9",'")>/"7,4%',6H244,"&/84,2'9")>/")/j)"+/4=8,D/4"
Fiore's fighting career as more than 50 years, yet in the Getty's and Morgan's
version, it is described as being for more than 40 years. This may imply that the
manuscripts may have been written in different years and therefore, the versions
represents not copies or versions of a single original treatise, but are instances
of a number of treatises by Fiore, perhaps each created for a different purpose or
patron.
M I L I T A R Y H I S T O R Y ! 47

5$B1:!8/:'"& -.& I/$P-#:& ):r-3:38-8n( RV & h"1& $&
$!:3#:3-=&$8:B"=&2&N-$%:#:2-&%".0%"2-&3-&4%>-
'-=&0$4"*/$2L&."*$&-.&0%:4'$2$%"&3:&!$%:!$&
-.1>I;-*-&3$B:3:'"&4$4"*3:'"&3"!-'"&$&3#>3-&
B-$'%"P-#-(&&
9"3-!-2$&#:L&4"&N-$%:&2&0%:4'$2$%>&3:&$B-
4:1"&0$4%$B3:#:&4:8:*1:*-#&1"8*3:&2$#"I/:&81>+-
B:L&42$B$#:2"3#"&*:%&>;:3#"&-3&0$>;:2"3#"&!:-
;:2"3#"(&5$4"&9"3>**$ 13 &#:&%"./%-1L&4"&#:&N-$%:&
3"#2:%#:*3:#:&81>+B$2"1&3"&8*%"3-&@-4!"&2&;"8>&
4%+"21#"38/:&2$#3:L&/-&#:&-.B%>=3-1"&1:*"&ReZe&
-3& #:& 81:4-1"& _& $.-%$!"L& 3"*"3;3:#:& _& #$& #:& -.-
.2"1$&-!:3$2"3#:&N-1-0"&4vE1:3{$3"&3"&0$1$+"#&
$'1:#8/:'"&0"*%-"%="&42:&1:*-&0$0%:#L&1:*"&ReZR(&
9"B:1:+:3$&#:L&4"&#:&B-1&N-$%:&*:4"#&."4$1+:3&."&
vodenje samostrelcev in topništva ter je tudi
3"B"21#"1&$%$+#:&-3&8*%:1-2$&."&$B%"!B$&2-4:!-
8/-=& ."2:.3-/$2( 14 & A$4%$B3$8*-& $& 4%+"21#"38/-&
2$#3-& 0$.3"!$& 1:& !"1$L& *$4"& @-4:!& #:& 2& 3#:#&
0%:21"4"1(&@"8&A%:!"%-"HH$L&@-4:!&-3&^:4"4&8$&
B-1-&$;-*3$&."2:.3-I/-&/%"#-L&/-&8$&-./"."1-&;"8*&
N-$%:#:2:!>& 0%-80:2/>& 2& 2$#3-& *"/$L& 4"& 8$& 0$&
njemu poimenovali ulico – Via Fiore dei Liberi.
O%>'-& $=%"3#:3-& 4$/>!:3*-& 3"/".>#:#$L& 4"& #:&
B-1&N-$%:&1:*"&ReWY&*>4-&2&A"4$2-&-3&1:*"&ReWW&2&
A"2--L&*$4"&0$4%$B3:#I:&0%:>;:2"3#:&*:=&0%-!:rov
presega namen našega sestavka.
-/'"'2D/'"02-4)/8"4")%1(',0",0/'209"3/?8%&"42"2+18,$,9"+%"Z,/=>)/'%*/8",W>%-%",W"
'/0(1/")8%+,=,-/"+2$E/E%"0/3%"_5%'467/)/8"5,$49"Meister Johann Liechtenauers
Kunst des langen Schwertes, Frankfurt 1985). Vse do danes ne poznamo nobenih
spisov niti dokumentov, ki bi razgrinjali biografske podatke mojstra Nikolaja ali
mojstra Johannesa.
@Q"78/+>2+'/"%'%$,W/"0/3/&%$=%",'"8%W,412&%$=%"F%))%"#%$%4%"_;/$E,-%9"%&E*4)"QRR!b"
42"?21%W%$/9"+%"&")%18%)',>",'"42+2D',>"D/4/+,$,>"',"02E23/"'%-),"'2D/'/"(12J,-/"
Mexinensis v takšni obliki zapisa, kot jo zasledimo v razpravi. Odkril pa je imena,
1,"42"mD$,W*n"],28/-/&,0"W%?,4209",'"4,=/8"D,")2"$%>12"D,$2"F/=>$,'/'4,4"_F/=>/$/'9"
;/$E,-%b9"F/E/'/'4,4"g"F/E,'/'4,4"=%0?*4"_'/1+%'-/"2182V-/"F%P/'J/$+"2D"4?2+'-
-/0")21*"8/1/"F24/$b9"F/j/'),%/"?2'4"_72')6N%,')/6F%j/'=/9"]8%'=,-%b9"F,4'/'4,4"
(Meissen, Saška) in Metensis (Metz, Lorena). Uveljavila se je domneva, da je To-
D$/0",W>%-%$",W"'/0(1/E%"D28,$'/E%",W823,$%."`/'+%8"4/"W+,9"+%"42"'/+%&'/"8%W?8%&/"
(Ariella Eleman, Toronto, in Fabrice Cognot, Belgija, 2006) razpršile to domnevo z
razlago, da se škofija Mexinensis pravzaprav lahko nanaša na Messino, kar lahko
potrdi naslednje delo: Johann Georg Theodor Grässe, Orbis Latinus, Lexikon lateinischer
geographischer Namen des Mittelalters und der Neuzeit, Braunschweig
@A:Q."h%0/'")/E%"4?,4%"',"8%W-%4',),"],28/-/&/"D,2E8%J,-/9"&/'+%8"-/"23,)'29"+%"D2+2"
+82D=,",'J280%=,-"&"],28/-/&/0"?8/+E2&28*"W%>)/&%$,"+2+%)'/"&/3-/"'/?248/+'/",'"
?248/+'/"8%W,41%&/")/8"?2+82D'2"-/W,12&'2"()*+,-2"J*8$%'(3,'/9"+%"D,"$%>12"?8,+2D,$,"
&/3"?2+%)12&9"1,",W>%-%-2",W"?202V',>"WE2+2&,'41,>"&,82&9"?2)8/D',>"W%"8%W-%4',)/&"
Fiorejeve biografije.
13 Luigi Zanutto, zgodovinar, ki je raziskoval Fiorejevo preteklost in napisal knjigo o
svoji raziskavi. Luigi Zanutto, Fiore di Premariacco ed i ludi e le feste marziali e
civili in Friuli, Videm 1907.
@T""Y%'*))2"-/"2+18,$")/"?2+%)1/"&"4?,4,>9"1,"-,>"-/"'%(/$"&"2D3,'41/0"%8>,&*"`,+0%9"`vv9"
f. 208 v, z datumom 30. september 1383. V teh spisih piše, da je Fiore po posvetu
mestnega sveta dobil nalogo, da skrbi za samostrelce in topništvo.
48 ! V O J A Š K A Z G O D O V I N A
63a*232E*E& 8*$F3E*E}& '%"2E1"'38& "E& |"28& "I$@3& "11-&
2"631C& 6"E'3%& e$:"223E& NBB32BE- QU who was a
scholar of Master Nicholas of Toblem of the Diocese
of Mexinensis«. 13 &k2;$%'B2"'31C-&':3%3&"%3&2$&;B%':3%&
details on these two gentlemen in Fiore’s treatise and
':3%3;$%3-& 2$& ;B%':3%& *11B6*2"'*$2& $2& ':3*%& I*$O%"phies
can be extracted from the prologue.
W2'3%3E'*2O1C-&P*$%3&8$3E&2$'&31"I$%"'3&$2&':3&83F-
"83E&$;&:*E&$]2&6*1*'"%C&E3%@*F3-&8B31E&"28&E]$%8E-
6"2E:*>& *2E'%BF'*$2& O*@32& "28T$%& %3F3*@38& *2& ':3&
>%$1$OB3.& b$]3@3%-& ?"2B''$ 14 revealed that Fiore
may have been in service of Udine during the civil
]"%&]:*F:&I%$,3&$B'&*2&QcYc&;$11$]*2O-&$%&6$%3&"F-
FB%"'31C-&I3*2O&>%$@$,38&IC&':3&"EF32E*$2&$;&P*1*>>$&
d’Alençon to the Patriarchate of Aquileia two years
earlier in 1381. Fiore was recorded as being in charge
$;&':3&F%$EEI$]632&"28&"%'*113%C&$%&I"11*E'"&F%3]E-&
as well as procuring arms and gunpowder for the
defense of the towns in the alliance with Udine. 15
43'"*1E&$;&':3&F*@*1&]"%&"%3&;3].&b$]3@3%-&k8*23&8*8&
>%3@"*1-& "28& ':3& @*11"O3& $;& H%36"%*"FF$-& k8*23& "28&
Cividale must have been the towns in the alliance
that honoured Fiore’s part in the war by naming
a street after him in each location – Via Fiore dei
D*I3%*.&_':3%&"%F:*@38&8$FB632'E&EBOO3E'&':"'&P*$%3&
]"E&"1E$&*2&H"8B"&*2&QcVX&"28&H"@*"&*2&QcVV-&IB'&
further detailed examination of these instances is
12 This has been a source of great discussion in the historical fencing community. The
X28+"m4**/'2n"0%P",'+,=%)/"F%4)/8"a2>%''/4"X%4"2J"#/80%'"28,E,'9"028/"4?/=,fically,
from Swabia. One line of thought is that Johannes of Swabia may in fact be
Johannes Liechtenauer, a swordsmaster from the mid-14th century However, the
timing is not quite right, as Fiore would only have been born around that time. To
add to the confusion, Fiore wrote that Master Johannes was a student of Master
Nicholas of Toblem, which would mean that Master Nicholas was Liechtenauer’s
instructor, and there is no mention of Master Nicholas in German treatises, although
Liechtenauer’s lineage has been mapped out with respect to German longs-
X28+")8%+,),2'"_5%'467/)/8"5,$49"Meister Johann Liechtenauers Kunst des langen
Schwertes, Frankfurt 1985). To date, there are no other records nor documents
which offer clues to flesh out Master Nicholas’ or Master Johannes’ biographical
data.
13" 78/$,0,'%8P"/j%0,'%),2'"DP"?8%=),),2'/8"%'+"8/4/%8=>/8"F%))"#%$%4"_;/$E,*09"U*gust
2005) indicated that the Diocese Mexinensis was not found in period and
02+/8'")/j)4"%4"4?/$$/+",'")>/")8/%),4/."52X/&/89">/"+,+"+,4=2&/8"'%0/4"m=$24/n"
to Fiore's written text which may be one of Mechlinensis (Mechelen in Belgium),
Megenensis / Meginensis campus (the former district of Mayenfeld on the lower
F24/$"8,&/8b9"F/j/'),%/"?2'4"_72')6N%,')/6F%j/'=/",'"]8%'=/b9"F,4'/'4,4"_F/,4sen
in Saxony), and Metensis (Metz in Lorraine). The going forward assumption
was that Toblem was of German heritage. However, recent discussions (Ariella
Eleman, Toronto, and Fabrice Cognot, Belgium, 2006) appear to have vapourized
that assumption with suggestions that the Diocese of Mexinensis may in fact be
referring to Messina and which may be supported by Johann Georg Theodor Grässe,
Orbis Latinus, Lexikon lateinischer geographischer Namen des Mittelalters
und der Neuzeit, Braunschweig 1972. This paper is not intended to crystallize the
biography of Fiore, however, it is evident that the fragments of information found in
Fiore’s prologue will require further significant direct and related research effort,
as well as a detailed linguistic study of Friulian, in order to tease out more details
originating from supporting historical sources necessary to flesh out Fiore’s biography.
14 Luigi Zanutto, an historian who conducted research into Fiore’s past and authored
a book on his research. Luigi Zanutto, Fiore di Premariacco ed i ludi e le feste
marziali e civili in Friuli, Udine 1907.
15 Zanutto discovered these pieces of information in the records found in the Municipal
Archive of Udine, VII, f. 208v dated September 30, 1383. They indicated
that after deliberation by the town council Fiore was tasked to take charge of the
crossbowmen and artillery.

N-$%:&#:&0-8"1&/%"*/"&0$%$;-1"&-3&$0-8$2"1&#>-
3"I/"&4:#"3#"&3:/"*:%-=&82$#-=&>;:3H:2L 15 ki so
*:/!$2"1-&3"&*>%3-%#-=(&5"/$&8:&#:&'$80$4&A-:%$&
del Verde 16 L&3:!I/-&2-*:.L 17 v Perosi (Perugia)
80$0"4:1&8&82$#-!&%$#"/$!L&'$80$4$!&A-:%$!&
de la Corono. 18 &O%>'-&3#:'$2&>;:3:HL&'$80$4&
i"1:"..$&-.&)"3*$2:L RW za katerega Fiore pra-
2-L&4"&#:&B-1&m=%"B:%&-3&!$;"3&2-*:.nL&8:&#:&B$-
#:2"1&1:*"&ReWY&3"&0$1#>&0%:4&A"4$2$&8&P%"3H$skim
vitezom Boucicaultom. VT Ta spopad je bil
0%"2."0%"2&42$B$#&;"8*-L&/-&'"&#:&-..2"1"&,$>-
H-H">1*$2"&-.#"2"L&4"&8$&X*"1-#"3-&8*%"=$0:*H-( VR
A-8"1&#:&$&'$80$4>&K-H$1>&p%-{-1-3>L VV &K:!H>L&
ki se je na polju v Imoli bojeval z Nicolom Ing-
=-1:8$! Ve &7m/-&#:&E3'1:+n?(&O%>'$&0$%$;-1$&$0--
8>#:&0$'>!3:'"&01:!-;"&L&/-&8*"&'"&3"4"1#:2"1"&3"&*1:=&3"&I*:*#:&
*%:=&>4"%H:2&8&8:/-%$L&*%:=&>4"%H:2&.&!:;:!&
-3& *%:=& 8>3/$2& .& B$4"1$!L& /"%& 8:& #:& 4$'"#"-
1$& 2& 3"2.$;3$8*-& m3:I*:*-=n& 2-8$/-=& 01:!-;:2L&
@!""G8%)1%"?2823,$%9"1,"2?,4*-/-2"-*'%(1%"+/-%'-%9"42"&"?8/+E2&28*"8%W?8%&"#/))P",'"
F28E%'9"&"8%W?8%&,"7,4%',6H244,"?%"?8%&"23,)'2"0%'-1%-2.
16 Miß piero dal uerde (Morgan) / Missier piero del verde (Getty).
17 Fiore imenuje Nemce »todeschi«."Y%8%+,"?2$,),3',>",'"WE2+2&,'41,>"8%W0/8"),4)/"
+2D/"',42"+/$%$,"&/3-,>"8%W$,1"0/+"h/0=,",'"u&%D,L"&4,"42"D,$,"»todeschi«.
18 Miser piero dala corona (Morgan) / Missier piero dela corona (Getty).
19 Miß Galeaz delli capitani de grimello chiamado da Mantoa (Morgan) / Missie
Galeaco di Captani di Grimello chiamado da Mantoa (Getty).
20 Miser Bricichardo de Franza (Morgan) / Missier Bucichardo de fraca (Getty).
Q@""],28/-/&"?8/+E2&28"'/"8%W18,&%"+%)*02&"+&2D2-/&9"&4/D*-/"?%"?2+82D'2"?2823,$29"
ki opisuje tradicionalni protokol in obred, povezan s to obliko dvoboja, ki se je odvil
?8/+"&$%+%8-,"7%+2&/9"F%')2&/9""8%'-/'9")2+%"E24?2+-/"42"'/0*+20%"?8/1,',$,"
dvoboj in Galeazzo in Boucicault sta sklenila mir. Galeazzo, Bartolomeo Gatari,
Cronaca carrarese, v: Rerum italicarum scriptores9" s`vvg@9" 7/8*E,%" @ARA6@AK@9"
str. 83, 448-9.
22 Miser Nicholo Vricilino (Morgan) / Missier Nicol Wricilino (Getty).
23 Nicholo Inghileso (Morgan) / nicolo Inghileso (Getty).
24 Lancilotto / Lanzilotto de Boecharia da Pavia (Morgan) / Lancilotto da Becharia de
Pauia (Getty). Ta oseba se je morda pojavila na nemškem grbovniku iz 15. stoletja
_$%),'412"FN"QS9"d',&/8W%"&"F%'=>/4)8*9"1'-,V',=%"%$voked
by Boucicault’s allegation that Italians were
cowards. UU & b3& ]%$'3& $;& "& N*%& M*F$1$& j%*~*1*2$- Uc a
German who fought with Nicolo Inghileso U[ (»one
who is English«) at the field at Imola. Another
"FF$B2'& 83EF%*I3E& ':3& @"1*"2'& EdB*%3& D"2+*1$''$&
Beccaria UX & $;& H"@*"& ]:$& ;"F38& N*%& )"18"EE"%$- UR a
K3%6"2-& $2& :$%E3I"F,.& )"18"EE"%$& %3F3*@38& E*a&
':%BE'E& ;%$6& D"2+*1$''$fE& 1"2F3.& 5:3C& F$2'*2B38& '$&
;*O:'&*2&':3&I"%%*3%E-&"11&$FFB%*2O&*2&W6$1". Um
P*$%3&]%$'3-&]*':&"2&"*%&$;&>%*83-&83'"*1E&$;&"&@"1iant
squire Çoanino da Bavo from Milan UY who faced
a valiant German squire by the name of Siram set
in the field at a castle in Pavia. They duelled with
a count of three thrusts of a lance of »soft iron« UV
on horseback. Fiore further elaborates on the duel
which then continued on foot to the count of three
I1$]E&$;&"a3-&':%33&I1$]E&$;&E]$%8&"28&':%33&I1$]E&$;&
8"OO3%-&"11&*2&':3&>%3E32F3&$;&|F$B2'13EE}&:*O:&%"2,ing
nobles including the prince and the Lord and the
Lady Duchess of Milan. Details of the outcome of this
16 The brief accounts describing feats of arms are written in the prologue of the
#/))Po4"%'+"F28E%'o4"&/84,2'49"D*)"%8/"&,4,D$P"%D4/')",'")>/"7,4%',6H244,"&/84,2'.
17 Miß piero dal uerde (Morgan) / Missier piero del verde (Getty).
18" ],28/"8/J/84")2"#/80%'4"%4"m)2+/4=>,n."#,&/'")>/"?2$,),=%$"%'+">,4)28,=%$"$%'+4=%?/"
at the time, there was little distinction between German and Swabian, all collecti-
&/$P"8/J/8/+")2"%4"m)2+/4=>,n.
19 Miser piero dala corona (Morgan) / Missier piero dela corona (Getty).
20 Miß Galeaz delli capitani de grimello chiamado da Mantoa (Morgan) / Missie Galeaco
di Captani di Grimello chiamado da Mantoa (Getty).
21 Miser Bricichardo de Franza (Morgan) / Missier Bucichardo de fraca (Getty).
22 Fiore’s prologue does not reveal dates of the duels. However, there is a detailed
account describing the traditional protocol and ceremony surrounding this form of
+*/$">/$+"D/J28/"Z28+4"2J"7%+*%9"F%')*%9"%8,%"+%"7%&,%"_F28E%'b"g"Z%'=,$2))2"+%";/=>%8,%"
+/"7%*,%"_#/))Pb."e>,4"?/842'"0%P">%&/"0%+/"%'"%??/%8%'=/",'"%"@!)>"=/')*8P"
German armorial (Latin MS 28, University of Manchester, Ryland Collection Library).
However, only some of the plates are visible in the online collection and no
text describing the arms is available at least online, and therefore, qualifying this
potential lead will require more effort which is outside the scope of this paper. The
arms are included for reference and interest only.
26 Miß Baldesar (Morgan) / Missier Baldassaro (Getty).
27 Cf. Trevor Dean, Crime and Justice in Late Medieval Italy, Cambridge 2007.
28 Zohanni de Baio da Milano (Morgan) / çoanino da Bavo (modern-day village of
Baggio) da Milano (Getty).
29" 782D%D$P"8/J/88,'E")2"m8/D%)/+n"X/%?2'4"X>,=>"X/8/",'=%?%D$/"2J")%1,'E"%'"/+E/9"
often employed in tournaments.
M I L I T A R Y H I S T O R Y ! 49

2/1#>;3$&8&0%-3H:!&*:%&!-1"38/-!&2$#2$4$&-3&
vojvodinjo. V predgovoru ni podatkov o izidu
*:'"& 42$B$#"L& 2:34"%& 1"=/$& 8/1:0"!$L& 4"& #:&
.!"'"1&N-$%:#:2&>;:3:H(
):4&4%>'-!-&42$B$#-&3#:'$2-=&>;:3H:2L&$!:-
3#:3-=&2&0%:4'$2$%>L&8!$&$B2:I;:3-&I:&$&'$80$-
4>&E{{>&4"&`"8*:11&,"%H="L VW ki se je bojeval s
|>"33:#:!&4-&M%4:1"PP-#:!L 30 ter o pogumnem
-3&4$B%:!&2-*:.>&f"H$!>&4-&,$8$3"L 31 &;:0%"2&3-&
0$4"*/$2L&8&/$!&8:&#:&0$!:%-1&f"H$!$(&
V predgovoru Pisani-Dossi je v razdelku
»alter prologus« zapisan stavek »...che io predito
fior o uecudo mille chiamati magistri che
non sono de tuti loro quatro boni scholari e de
quilli quatro boni scholari non seria uno bon
magistro«L&2&/"*:%:!&8:&N-$%:&8/$%"#&B"="L&4"&
#:&B-1&2-4:1&3"&*-8$;:&8"!$.2"3-=&!$#8*%$2L&$4&
/"*:%-=&0"&#:&-!:1&1:&I*-%-&."&4$B%:&0$.3"2"1H:&
in enega samega za mojstra. Te trditve ni najti
v predgovoru Getty ne v prologu Morgan. Ven-
4"%&0"&0%:4'$2$%"&i:**g&-3&)$%'"3&$!:3#"*"L&
4"&8$&N-$%:#"&-..2"1-&3"&0:*&42$B$#:2&8&8:;3-!&
-3&B$43-!&$%$+#:!L&-3&8-H:%&8"!$&2&#$0-;> eV in
>83#:3-=&%$/"2-H"=&7mchamoisn?L&/:%&8:&3-&+:-
1:1&B$#:2"*-&3-*-&3:&2"4-*-&.&!$#8*%-L&/-&8$&'"&-.-
.-2"1-(&5-&42$B$#-&8$&8:&$42-#"1-&3"&/%"#-=L&/#:%&
N-$%:&3-&-!:1&3$B:3-=&0$!$;3-/$2&"1-&0%-#"*:-
1#:2L&*$4"&$;-*3$&!>&#:&>80:1$&$B2"%$2"*-&82$#:&
dobro ime.
Nedvomno so bila najbolj vznemirljiva po-
.3:#I"& 1:*"& N-$%:#:2:'"& +-21#:3#"& /$3:H& R\(& -3&
.";:*:/&RY(&8*$1:*#"&2&;"8>L&/$&#:&0-8"1&82$#:&%".-
0%"2:(& A%:4'$2$%& m"1*:%& 0%$1$'>8n& 2& %".1-;-H-&
A-8"3-[O$88-& 0$>4"%#"& 21$'$& K-H$1"& XXX(& 4vF8*:&
-3&!:#3:'"&'%$P"&N:%%"%8/:'" 33 &*:%&$!:3#"L&4"&
#:&%".0%"2"L&*"/$&3#:3&0-83-&/$*&*>4-&-1>8*%-%"3-&
4:1L&3"8*"1"&3"&3#:'$2$&+:1#$(&5$&3"8&3"0:1#>#:&
/&!3:3#>L&4"&#:&B-1&K-H$1$&N-$%:#:2&0$/%$2-*:1#&
-3&#:&."*$&N-$%:#>&3"%$;-1L&3"#&3"0-I:&/3#-'$&$&
B$#:2"3#>L& /-& #$& #:& +:1:1& 4$4"*-& 82$#-& $B8:+3-&
.B-%/-& /3#-'(& @& 0%:4'$2$%>& 3-;& 3:& 3"/".>#:L&
4"&#:&B-1&N-$%:&;1"3&3#:'$2:'"&42$%"(&O$!3:-
2"!$&0"L&4"&#:&B$%-13-&0%-%$;3-/&-.0$4&0:%:8"&
H:3#:3:'"& -3& >'1:43:'"& !:;:2"1H"& $B$'"*-1&
29 Miser Azo da Castelbarcho (Morgan) / Missier Açço da Castell Barcho (Getty).
30 Miß Zohanni di li ordelaffig (Morgan) / çuanne di Ordelaffi (Getty).
31 Miß Jacomo da Besen (Morgan) / Missier Jacomo di Boson (Getty).
32" F,($-/'"-/"?2+$2V/'"-2?,3"W"+2$E,0,"821%&,9"1,"4/"'24,"?2+"21$/?209"?2E24)2"2?8/0-
$-/'"W"'%4)%&1,9"'%"1%)/8/"4/"?8,3&84),"?$2(3',"21$/?."],28/"&"4&2-/0"?8/+E2&28*"
20/'-%9"+%"4/"-/"8%-/"D2-/&%$"&"21$/?*9"1/8"-/"D,$2")2"&/$,12"&%8'/-/9"3/"-/"D2-/&',1"
'%8/+,$"'%?%129"4%-"-/"?$2(3',"21$/?"W%E2)%&$-%$"+2D82"W%(3,)2."vW-%&,$"-/9"+%"D,"4/"'%"
turnirju raje trikrat bojeval v oklepu kot pa enkrat samkrat brez oklepa z ostrim
0/3/0.
33" h,=2$2"vvv.9"82-/'"A."'2&/0D8%"@KSK."G2"-/"$/)%"@KAT"*08$"'-/E2&"23/"U$D/8)2"`.9"-/"
h,=2$2"?2+/+2&%$"?24/4)&2"&"c4)/9""1,"-/")%18%)"&1$-*3/&%$2"]/88%829"F2+/'29"U+8,29"
M20%==>,29"%$1$OB3-&IB'&*'&F"2&I3&
assumed that Fiore’s student was victorious.
_':3%&8B31E&$;&:*E&E'B832'E&632'*$238&*2&':3&>%$logue
include Sir Açço da Castell Barcho 30 who fought
]*':& B"223&8*&_%831";;*- 31 and the valiant and good
,2*O:'&N*%&e"F$6$&8*&)$E$2- cU although there are no
details on whom Jacomo faced in the duel.
W2& ':3& H*E"2*Z4$EE*& >%$1$OB3-& *2& ':3& |"1'3%& >%$-
1$OBE}&E3F'*$2&$;&':3&>%$1$OB3-&':3&>:%"E3&|...F:3&*$&
predito fior o uecudo mille chiamati magistri che
non sono de tuti loro quatro boni scholari e de quilli
quatro boni scholari non seria uno bon magistro«
is written in which Fiore almost boasts having seen
thousands of self-styled masters of which he would
consider only four good scholars and just one a master.
This claim is not included in the Getty nor the
!$%O"2&>%$1$OB3.&b$]3@3%-&*2&':3&K3''C&"28&!$%O"2&
prologues it is mentioned that Fiore was challenged
Ill. 1: Grbovne podobe Lanzilotta Beccarie
WWW.&QL&/%6$%*"1&)3"%*2OE&$;&D"2+*1$''$&)3FF"%*"
'$& ;*@3& 8B31E-& BE*2O& FB'& "28& ':%BE'& ]3">$2E-& ]3"%ing
only an arming doublet 33 and leather gauntlets
(»chamois«) because he did not wish to fight nor
practice with the masters who challenged him. These
duels occurred in locations without any supportive
%31"'*$2E& "28& ;%*328E-& IB'& ">>"%32'1C-& :*E& :$2$B%&
was and remained secured.
j*':$B'&"&8$BI'-&':3&6$E'&@3a*2O&>"%'&$;&P*$%3fE&
1*;3&]3%3&:*E&1"'3%&C3"%E-&"'&':3&328&$;&':3&Q[ th and
the beginning of the 15 th century during the period
of time of the composition of his treatise or treatises.
The »alter prologus« in the Pisani-Dossi version
30 Miser Azo da Castelbarcho (Morgan) / Missier Açço da Castell Barcho (Getty).
31 Miß Zohanni di li ordelaffig (Morgan) / çuanne di Ordelaffi (Getty).
32 Miß Jacomo da Besen (Morgan) / Missier Jacomo di Boson (Getty).
33 An arming doublet is a long-sleeved padded jacket worn under armour, often fitted
with arming points to which plate armour would have been tied to. Fiore mentioned
in his prologue that his preference was to fight in armour because it was far more
forgiving should the combatant make a mistake by virtue of the protection offered
by the plate armour. He stated that he would rather fight three times in armour in
the barriers than a single unarmoured duel with a sharp sword.

K-H$1$#:2$& /3#-+3-H$(& C".1-;-H"& A-8"3-[O$88-&
%"./%-2"L&4"&#:&N-$%:&.";:1&0-8"*-&82$#$&%".0%"2$&
RT(&P:B%>"%#"&R\TW&-3&#$&/$3;"1&0%-B1-+3$&I:8*&
mesecev pozneje.
9"3-!-2$&#:L&4"&P:%%"%8/-&!:#3-&'%$P&3-&$!:njen
v predgovoru razprave Morgan. Pravza-
0%"2&3-&$!:3#:3&3-=;:L&/-&B-&8-&'"&1"=/$&%".lagali
kot Fiorejevega pokrovitelja. Fiore piše
$&82$#-=&>;:3H-=&-3&3#-=$2-=&#>3"I/-=&4:#"3#-=&
*:%&0%"2&$;-*3$&-.0>8*-&K-H$1"&XXX(&8&*:'"&8:.3"-
!"(&6$&#:&N-$%:&.";:1&0-8"*-&mN1$8&O>:11"*$%>!n&
7%".1-;-H$& A-8"3-[O$88-?L& #:& K-H$1$& I*:1& VR& 1:*L&
*$%:#& B-& 8:& +:& 1"=/$& -.>;-1& -3& 0%:8/>I"1& 82$#:&
spretnosti v turnirski ogradi.
K-H$1$&4vF8*:&0"&#:&2:34"%1:&$!:3#:3&2&0%:4-
'$2$%>&i:**g(&@&B-8*2>&8:&.4-L&4"&#:&4"1&N-$%:#>&
3"2$4-1"L&/"/$&8*%>/*>%-%"*-&%".0%"2$(&MB&*:!&
8:& 0$3>#"& 20%"I"3#:L& "1-& #:& B-1& K-H$1$& N-$%:#:2&
0$/%$2-*:1#&"1-&0"&:4:3&$4&3#:'$2-=&>;:3H:2L&/-&
#:&-!:1&4$2$1#&201-2"&-3&8%:48*:2L&4"&#:&3"%$;-1&
kopijo "%6*+"%3 samo zase. Morda si je Nicolo
+:1:1&0$8*"*-&-./>I:3&!:;:2"1:H&"1-&28"#&4"#"*-&
*"/I:3&2*-8L&.1"8*-&I:L&;:&0$!-81-!$L&4"&#:&N-$%:&
2&0%:4'$2$%>&-.#"2-1L&4"&3-=;:&3-!"&4$2$1#&4$-
B%:'"&80$!-3"L&4"&B-&8-&."0$!3-1&28:&80%:*3$8*-&
B%:.&0$!$;-&*$2%8*3:&/3#-':(&X3&2:34"%&0%:4'$vor
Getty ne omenja Nicola kot enega Fioreje-
2-=&>;:3H:2L&/-&B-&4$/".$2"1&#>3"I/"&4:#"3#"L&
.3"3#"&-3&80%:*3$8*-&3"&:3"/&3";-3&/$*&4%>'-(&
V nobenem od predgovorov razumljivo ne
najdemo letnice Fiorejeve smrti in vse do da-
3:8&3:&0$.3"!$&."0-8$2L&"%=-28/-=&"1-&4%>'";-
3-=L& /-& B-& %"./%-2"1-& N-$%:#:2:& 4:#"23$8*-& 0$&
letu 1410. Najverjetneje je umrl med leti 1410
-3&R\VT(
;70417,"&Z&#175#7&41):"1+7*-7&7-7*)07
5%:3>*3$& $B8*"#"#$& *%-& .3"3:& %".1-;-H:& N-$-
%:#:2-=& %".0%"2& $& "%6*+"%3(& D0$4"#& 8$& *$;3:&
navedbe:
N-$%&4-&,"**"'1-"J&)D&)(eZe&_&/3#-+3-H"&A-:%-
0$-3*&)$%'"3&7%$/$0-8&m)$%'"3n?b&
N-$%& 4-& ,"**"'1-"J& )D& 4G-'& q@& Re& _& )>.:#&
f$=3"&A">1"&i:**g#"&7%$/$0-8&mi:**gn?b&
Flos Duellatorum (Pisani-Dossi MS): Frances-
H$&K$2"*-L&Flos duellatorum: Il Fior di battaglia
di maestro Fiore dei Liberi da Premaria-
FF$-&,:%'"!$&RWTV(
highlights Nicolo III d’Este and Marquis of Ferrara 34
and mentions that the composition of the treatise including
both the writing and the illustrations was
done at the request of Nicolo. This implies that Nicolo
was Fiore’s patron and therefore commissioned Fiore
to compose a book on combat to satisfy Nicolo’s desire
to add to his extensive bibliographic collection.
There is nothing in the prologue which may indicate
that Fiore was a member of the Marquis’ court. It is
thought that given Fiore was a reputable and nota-
I13&E]$%8E6"2-&M*F$1$fE&1*I%"%C&]"E&32:"2F38&]*':&
the addition of Fiore’s treatise. The Pisani-Dossi version
indicates that he started writing on 10 February
Q[SV& "28& F$6>13'38& ':3& '%3"'*E3& E$63& E*a& 6$2':E&
later.
W2'3%3E'*2O1C-&':3%3&*E&2$&632'*$2&$;&':3&!"%dB*E&
83& P3%%"%"& *2& ':3& !$%O"2fE& >%$1$OB3.& W2& ;"F'-& ':3%3&
is no mention of anyone who may be interepreted
as being Fiore’s patron. Fiore writes of his students
"28&':3*%&;3"'E&$;&"%6E-&]*':&"2&$I@*$BE&$6*EE*$2&$;&
Nicolo III from the list of his students. By the time
Fiore began his composition of »Flos Duellatorum«
9H*E"2*Z4$EE*& @3%E*$2=-& M*F$1$& ]$B18& :"@3& I332& UQ&
years of age and therefore would have received instruction
and would have been able to test his skills
in the barriers.
b$]3@3%-& ]3& 8$& ;*28& M*F$1$& 8f%$1$OB3.&W2&
;"F'-& *'& ">>3"%E& ':"'& ':3& !"%dB*E& :"8& >%$@*838& *2structions
to Fiore on how to structure the treatise.
This raises the question about whether Nicolo was
P*$%3fE&>"'%$2-&$%&>3%:">E&:3&]"E&$23&$;&P*$%3fE&E'B-
832'E-& "28& ]*31838& 32$BO:& >$]3%& "28& %3E$B%F3E& '$&
request a copy of the art for his own reference to
"%6*+"%3Ä&H3%:">E&M*F$1$&:"8&':3&83E*%3&'$&I3F$63&
$%&"'&13"E'&I3&>3%F3*@38&"E&"&E,*1138&E]$%8E6"2-&O*@32&
that Fiore stated in the prologue that no man has
a great enough memory to remember the complete
"%'&]*':$B'&':3&"*8&$;&EBF:&"&I$$,.&g3'-&':3&K3''CfE&
prologue had no mention of Nicolo as one of his students
demonstrating feats of arms of the knowledge
and skills in the same manner as the other scholars
mentioned.
k2;$%'B2"'31C-&':3&>%$1$OB3E&$I@*$BE1C&8$&2$'&*2-
F1B83&':3&C3"%&$;&P*$%3fE&83"':-&"28&'$&8"'3-&':3%3&"%3&
2$&%3F$%8E-&"%F:*@38&$%&$':3%]*E3&]:*F:&%3@3"1&P*$%3fE&
"F'*@*'*3E&";'3%&Q[QS.&H%3EB6"I1C-&:3&8*38&E$63&'*63&
I3']332&Q[QS&"28&Q[US.
34 Nicolo III, born on 9 November 1383. When his father Alberto V died in 1394, Nicolo
inherited the Estense state whose dominions at that time included Ferrara, Modena,
Adria, Comacchio, Rovigo and various possessions in Romagna.
M I L I T A R Y H I S T O R Y ! 51

A%$2:3-:3H"&%".1-;-H:&)$%'"3&#:&3"81:43#"J 34
)D&)(eZe&#:&-.'>B1#:3-&%$/$0-8&)``03-#:&,"'-3'*$3L&`$-
2:3*%gb& 0%$4"1& 70-1&f$=3&A-:%0$3*&)$%'"3&7RZek[RWRe?&$4&5(&
4:&)"%-3-8"&1:*"&RWTWb&
f(&A(&)$%'"3&7RZSk_RWek?(
Trenutno in splošno priznana provenienca
."&%".1-;-H$&i:**g&#:J 35
K-HH$1}&)"%H:11$&4-&D"3*"&)"%-3"L&,:3:*/:b&
E0$8*$1$&9:3$&7RSSZ_RkYT?b&
-'-&`:1$**-&7$/(&RkZW&4$&$/(&RZ\S?&_&0%$4"3$&
0%-&D$*=:Bgz8&1:*"&RZVY&b&
5=$!"8&A=-11-008&_&I*(&)8(\VT\&_&0%$4"3$&0%-&
D$*=:Bgz8&1:*"&RWSSb&
A:*:%& -3& X%:3:& 4G-'& -.& E"H=3"L& K:!;-#"b&
prodano:
)>.:#&f$=3"&A">1"&i:**g#"&1:*"&RWZeL&-3&$4&*$4&
zdajšnje ime.
C".1-;-H"&A-8"3-[O$88-&-!"&0%:4'$2$%L&/-&'"&
8:8*"21#"*"&42"&4:1"L&0%2-&2&1"*-3I;-3-&-3&4%>'-L&
$B8:+3:#I-&4:1L&m"1*:%&0%$1$'>8nL&2&B:3:I/-&-*"1--
#"3I;-3-( 36 &K#:3&0%:4'$2$%&3-&0%"2&3-;&0$4$B:3&
4%>'-!"&42:!"&%".1-;-H"!"L&8"#&#:&B%:.&28"/%-
I3:'"& $0-8"& #>3"I/-=& 4:#"3#& N-$%:#:2-=& >;:3-
H:2(&A$1:'&*:'"&$!:3#"L&4"&#:&N-$%:#:2"&/"%-:%"&
*%"#"1"&YT&1:*L&3:&0"&\TL&/$*&3"2"#"*"&4%>'-&42:&
%".1-;-H-(& @:34"%& 8"!$& 2& %".1-;-H-& A-8"3-[O$8-
8-&3"1:*-!$&3"&*$;:3&4"*>!(&N-$%:&#:&."0-8"1L&
4"&#:&.";:1&8:8*"21#"*-&82$#:&4:1$&RT(&P:B%>"%#"&
R\TW& 7R\RT& 0$& 8$4$B3:!& /$1:4"%#>?L& -3& 3"-
!-'>#:L& 4"& '"& #:& 4$/$3;"1& 0%-B1-+3$& 2& I:8*-=&
!:8:H-=(&E1-&#:&4%>'";3"&3"2:4B"&;"8"&*%"#"-
3#"&N-$%:#:2:&/"%-:%:&2&4%>'-=&42:=&%".1-;-H"=&
34" 72+%)1,"2"?82&/',/'=,"?8,823',1%"F28E%'"42"?2&W/),"W"D/4/+,$%"'%"?$%)',=,9"1,"2?,-
4*-/"8212?,4"W"k++/$1%"W%"48/+'-/&/(1/",'"8/'/4%'3'/"8212?,4/"1'-,V',=/"7,/8?2,')"
Morgan, in tudi povzema izvor virov, naštetih v omenjenem dokumentu, iz objave
Francesca Novatija leta 1902.
35" 72+%)1,"2"?82&/',/'=,"?8,823',1%"#/))P9"42"?2&W/),"?2"4?$/)',"4)8%',"F%))%"c%4)2'%f"
>))?fggXXX.J,28/+/,$,D/8,.28EgJ,28/g."78&2)'2"-,>"-/"4/4)%&,$"F%))"#%$%4.
36 Gl. John Florio, Queen Anna's New World of Words or Dictionarie of the Italian and
English Tongues, London 1611.
52 ! V O J A Š K A Z G O D O V I N A
The Treatises – a Brief Comparative Analysis
There are presently three known versions of
P*$%3fE&'%3"'*E3E&$2&"%6*+"%3.&5:3&;$11$]*2O&"%3&':3&
exact citations:
Fior di Battaglia: MS M.383 - The Pierpoint Morgan
Library (Codex »Morgan«)
P*$%&8*&)"''"O1*"L&!N&DB8]*O&sG&Qc&Z&e.&H"B1&K3''C&
Museum (Codex »Getty«)
Flos Duellatorum (Pisani-Dossi MS): Francesco Nova-
'*-&P1$E&8B311"'$%B6L&W1&P*$%&8*&I"''"O1*"&8*&6"3E'%$&
P*$%3&83*&D*I3%*&8"&H%36"%*"FF$-&)3%O"6$&QVSU.
The provenance for the Morgan version is: 35
!N&!.cYc&*E&':3&1$E'&F$83a&!00DsW&$;&':3&)*I1*$'3F"&
N$%"2+$&*2&G32*F3&9D*I%"%C&$;&e"F$>$&N$%"2+$-&G3-
23'*"2&E32"'$%-&QY':&F32'B%C=&E$18&*2&QmYSp&
!"''3$&DB*O*&0"2$2*F*&9QmUmhQYSX=p&:*E&E"13&9D$2-
8$2&N$':3ICfE-&QX&eB23&QYcR-&2$.&[S=&'$L
`3@.&j"1'3%&N23C8&$;&)"O*2O'$2&`3F'$%C-&0$@32'%Cp&
:*E&E"13&9D$28$2-&N$':3ICfE-&QV&43F36I3%&QVSc-&
2$.&mUS=&'$L
B%F:"E38& IC& e$:2& H*3%>$2'& !$%O"2& 9QYcmhQVQc=&
;%$6&5.&83&!"%*2*E&*2&QVSVp&
e.H.&!$%O"2&9QYRmhQVcm=.
The currently understood and generally accepted
provenance for the Getty version is: 36
M*FF$1Å&!"%F311$&8*&N"2'"&!"%*2"&G323+*"p&
Apostolo Zeno (1668–1750);
DB*O*&031$''*&9QmYV&F".hQY[R&F".=&h&E$18&"'&N$':3ICfE&
*2&QYUXp&
5:$6"E&H:*11*>>E&h&M%.&!E.[US[&h&E$18&"'&N$':3ICfE&
*2&QVRRp&
H3'3%&"28&W%323&DB8]*O&;%$6&/"F:32-&K3%6"2Cp&E$18&
to the:
e$:2& H"B1& K3''C& !BE3B6& *2& QVYc-& ':BE& O3''*2O& *'E&
present name.
The Pisani-Dossi version has a prologue com-
>%*E38&$;&']$&>$%'*$2E-&':3&;*%E'&*2&D"'*2-&"28&':3&E3Fond
more comprehensive portion »alter prologus« in
a Venetian dialect of Italian. 37 Its prologue is quite
35 The provenance listed for the Morgan version is extracted from the cover informa-
),2'"?%E/"+/4=8,D,'E")>/"0%'*4=8,?)"J820")>/"7,/8?2,')"F28E%'"Z,D8%8P"H/?%8)0/')"
of Medieval and Renaissance Manuscripts, and which describes the source of the
provenance listed in that document from the publication by Francesco Novati in
1902.
36 The provenance listed for the Getty version is extracted from Matt Easton's website:
http://www.fioredeiliberi.org/fiore/. It was originally compiled by Matt Galas.
37 Cf. John Florio, Queen Anna’s New World of Words or Dictionarie of the Italian and
English Tongues, London 1611.

3"0"/"~&&RY(&8*$1:*#"(&):4&.'$dovinarji
se okrog tega še vedno odvija vneta
%".0%"2"L& 3"!:3& *:'"& 8:8*"2/"& 0"& 3-& 3"4"1#:&
razpravljati ali raziskovati v tej smeri.
Najnenavadnejša razlika med rokopisom
A-8"3-[O$88-&-3&4%>'-!"&42:!"&%".1-;-H"!"&#:&
.'%"4B"&B:8:4-1"L&/-&80%:!1#"&-1>8*%"H-#:(&5$&#:&
8:8*"21#:3$& -.& %-!"3-=& />01:*$2L& !$%4"& ."*$L&
4"& B-& 2/1#>;-1-& B$%-13:& 0$#!:& 2& /"%& 3"#/%"#I$&
$B1-/$L& /-& 8-& #$& #:& 3"#1"+#:& ."0$!3-*-& -3& *"/$&
0%-/1-H"*-& -.& 80$!-3"& 4:1:& $B8:+3:'"& 8-8*:!"&
"%6*+"%3(&K"I:&!3:3#:L&8&/"*:%-!&8:&8*%-3#"#$&
tudi drugi raziskovalci in vaditelji zgodovin-
8/:'"& !:;:2"3#"L& #:L& 4"& #:& -!:1"& $B1-/"& *:'"&
rokopisa morda podoben namen kot mnemo-
*:=3-/"L&/-&#$&>0$%"B1#"!$&."&0$!3#:3#:&4$1$-
;:3-=&0$4"*/$2L&4:#8*:2&"1-&0$#!$2( 37 &C".1-;-H"&
A-8"3-[O$88-& #:& !$%4"& *:!:1#-1"& 3"& 0$4$B3-=&
80$!-38/-=&*:=3-/"=&/$*&4%>'-&0-83-&8:8*"2/-&
*-8*:&4$B:L&3"!:3#:3-&/$*&-.*$;3-H:&-3&0$!$;&
."& 1"+#:& 0$!3#:3#:(& X8*$& *:=3-/$& 1"=/$& %".I--
%-!$& 2& 8/>0:/& !3:!$*:=3-;3-=& P%".L& /$*& 8$&
4:3-!$&0%-1#>B1#:3-&."0-8/-&m`$1:8&K$*:8nL 38 ki
8$&#-=&I*>4:3*#:&4$1'"&1:*"&>0$%"B1#"1-&/$*&2$-
4-1$&."&I*>4-#&-3&>;3$&0$!$;(&9"3-!-2$&#:L&4"&
8:&0%-B1-+3$&SZ& &0%$1$'"&2&A-8"3-[O$88-&$8%:-
4$*$;"&3"&$0-8$2"3#:&.'%"4B:&-3&$B1-/:&0%-%$;-
3-/"L&2&0%-!:%#"2-&8&0%-B1-+3$&\k& &2&%".1-;-H-&
i:**g& -3& 0-;1-!-& VS& & 0%:4'$2$%"& 2& %".1-;-H-&
Morgan. Tako podrobno obravnavanje njene
.'%"4B:&0$*%#>#:&!-8:1L&4"&#:&B-1"&%".1-;-H"&A--
8"3-[O$88-&!$%4"&%:8&3"!:3#:3"&."&I$18/-&>;benik
in usposabljanje.
):4&28:!-&*%:!-&%".1-;-H"!-&i:**g&28:B>#:&
3"#0$4%$B3:#I:& $48*"2/:& $B& -1>8*%"H-#"=& 7'1:#&
D1(&V?(&D1:4-&)$%'"3&.&3:/$1-/$&/%"#I-!&B:8:-
4-1$!(&A$1:'&*:'"&-1>8*%"H-#:&2&%".1-;-H"=&i:*-
*g&-3&)$%'"3&3:&4"#:#$&*$1-/$&2*-8"&I"B1$38/-=&
upodobitev kot tiste v Pisani-Dossi. Vendar
28:B-3"&%".1-;-H:&)$%'"3&_&;:0%"2&#:&0$4$B3:#-
I"&%".1-;-H-&i:**g&_&3-&0$0$13"L&8"#&#-&!"3#/"-
#$&0$!:!B3"&0$'1"2#"L&3"&0%-!:%&m"I%"+"%3«
37 Mary J. Carruthers, The Book of Memory – A Study of Memory in Medieval Culture,
Cambridge 1990.
KS""Y%?,41,"mM2$/4"h2)/4n"42"D,$,"?8&,3"2D-%&$-/',"$/)%"@ATS"&"`/$,1,";8,)%',-,",'"42"W+%-"
&"$%4),"W%$2VD/"v'+,E2";2214"&"G%'%+,."mM2$/4"h2)/4n"42",0/$,"?2+2D/'"'%0/'*"12)"
%0/8,(1%"8%W$,3,=%"mM$,JJ"h2)/4n9"?8&,3"2D-%&$-/'%"$/)%"@A!S.
unlike the other two versions inasmuch as it is completely
devoid of any description of the feats of arms
$;&P*$%3fE&E'B832'E-&"28&632'*$238&P*$%3fE&F"%33%&"E&
50 years as opposed to 40 years in the other two ver-
E*$2E.& b$]3@3%-& $21C& *2& ':3& H*E"2*Z4$EE*& @3%E*$2& *E&
a date explicitly stated. Fiore wrote that he started
:*E& F$6>$E*'*$2& $2& QS& P3I%B"%C& Q[SV& 9Q[QS& BE*2O&
the modern calendar) and alludes to taking approximately
six months to complete. Were the differences
in the years of Fiore’s career an error in the other two
@3%E*$2EÄ&W'&F$B18&I3&"%OB38&':"'&EBF:&"&>3%E$2"1&83-
'"*1&]$B18&:"%81C&EBFFB6I&'$&EBF:&"2&$I@*$BE&3%%$%-&
and therefore one can postulate that the Pisani-Dossi
version was composed approximately 5 to 10 years
after the completion of the Getty’s and Morgan’s ver-
E*$2E-&63"2*2O&':3&K3''CfE&"28&':3&!$%O"2fE&@3%E*$2E&
were written some time shortly after the turn of the
14 th century. This debate continues with vigour in
the historical community and further discussion
or research on this particular subject is outside the
scope of this paper.
The most extraordinary difference between the
Pisani-Dossi and the other versions is in the structure
of the text accompanying the illustrations. The
'3a'& *E& F$6>%*E38& $;& %:C6*2O& F$B>13'E-& ]:*F:& 6"C&
have been designed to inject combative concepts
into the shortest and most memorable prose to aid
in recalling and remembering the great expanse of
"%6*+"%3.&W'&*E&':3&$>*2*$2&$;&':*E&"B':$%-&]:*F:&*E&
shared by other researchers and practitioners of his-
'$%*F"1& ;32F*2O-& ':"'& ':3& 83E*O2& $;& ':*E& 6"2BEF%*>'&
may have served a similar purpose as mnemonics
*E&BE38&'$&%3636I3%&83'"*1E&$;&F3%'"*2&*2;$%6"'*$2-&
facts or concepts. 38 The Pisani-Dossi version may
have employed similar memorial techniques consistent
with other period writings as memorial cues and
aids. This technique can be extended to a conglomeration
of mnemonic phrases and the popular »Coles
Notes« cV used by students for many years as a study
OB*83&"28&13"%2*2O&"*8.&W2'3%3E'*2O1C-&">>%$a*6"'31C&
RYi&$;&':3&>%$1$OB3&*2&':3&H*E"2*Z4$EE*&*E&;$FBE38&$2&
83EF%*I*2O&':3&E'%BF'B%3&"28&$%83%&$;&':3&'%3"'*E3-&"E&
F$6>"%38&'$&">>%$a*6"'31C&[mi&*2&':3&K3''CfE&@3%-
E*$2&"28&$21C&URi&$;&':3&>%$1$OB3&*2&':3&!$%O"2fE&
version. Such detail in its structure adds credence to
the notion that perhaps the Pisani-Dossi version was
indeed oriented towards a student’s learning and
training guide.
38 Mary J. Carruthers, The Book of Memory – A Study of Memory in Medieval Culture,
Cambridge 1990.
39 Coles Notes were first published in 1948 in the UK, and are now owned by Indigo
Books in Canada. Coles Notes served a similar function to the American's version
=%$$/+"mM$,JJ"h2)/4n9"J,84)"?*D$,4>/+",'"@A!S.
M I L I T A R Y H I S T O R Y ! 53

XXX(&VJ&R(&-'%"&_&"I%"+"%3 (Getty)
WWW.&UL&Q st &>1"C&h&"I%"+"%3&9K3''C=
(ruvanje) in »dagan&7B$#&.&B$4"1$!?L&/-&#-=&3"#-
4:!$&2&%".1-;-H"=&A-8"3-[O$88-&-3&i:**g(&
Sledi podrobnejši pregled predstavitve magistra
rimedia (op. prev. prvega mojstra boje-
2"3#"& .& B$4"1$!L& /-& 8:& .3"& B%"3-*-& -3& =/%"*-&
napasti) prve igre "I%"+"%3(&;:-
3:H& B$%-13:& 2:I;-3:& .1"=/"& 0%:2:4:& 2& P-.-;3$&
realnost.
,:8:4-1$&2&%".1-;-H-&i:**g&$B&:3"/-=&1-/-=&8:&
glasi:
vB3E'$&E*3&1$&>%*6$&+$O:$&83&"I%"+"%3
et ogni guardia
39 Veliko transkripcij iz rokopisa v razpravah je povzetih iz Rubboli – Cesari 2002. Te
transkripcije se bolj ali manj ujemajo s številnimi drugimi, ki so na voljo na spletu.
Dodali smo le nekaj manjših popravkov, da so bolj v skladu z izvirnim besedilom.
54 ! V O J A Š K A Z G O D O V I N A
III. 3: 1. igra – "I%"+"%3 (Pisani-Dossi)
III. 3: 1 st &>1"C&h&"I%"+"%3&9H*E"2*Z4$EE*=
_;&':3&':%33&@3%E*$2E-&':3&K3''CfE&$;;3%E&':3&6$E'&
detailed paragraphs accompanying the illustrations
9E33&W11.&U=-&;$11$]38&IC&':3&!$%O"2fE&]*':&"&E1*O:'1C&
"II%3@*"'38&'3a'.&5$&"88-&':3&*11BE'%"'*$2E&;$B28&*2&
the Getty’s and Morgan’s are less »cartoon« like than
':3&*11BE'%"'*$2E&;$B28&*2&':3&H*E"2*Z4$EE*.&!$%3$@3%-&
':3&F$2'32'E&$;&':3&!$%O"2-&83E>*'3&I3*2O&6$%3&E*6*-
1"%& '$& ':3& K3''CfE& @3%E*$2-& "%3& 2$'& "& F$6>13'3& '%3"-
'*E3-&]*':&E*O2*;*F"2'&>$%'*$2E&2$'&*2F1B838&EBF:&"E&
':3&|"I%"+"%3}&9O%">>1*2O=&"28&|8"O"}&98"OO3%=&E3Ftions
found in both the Pisani-Dossi and Getty’s.
A more detailed examination of the presentation
of the First Remedy Master of the first play of abra-
+"%3&;$11$]E.&5:3&'3a'&"FF$6>"2C*2O&':3&;*OB%3E&*2&
the Pisani-Dossi version reads as:
Cum questa presa in terra andare ti farò
_B3%$&31&I%"~$&E32*E'%$&'*&83E1$O"%$- 40
which translated becomes:
I will make you go to the ground with this hold
_%&31E3&W&]*11&8*E1$F"'3&C$B%&13;'&"%6.
Although the couplet is not as much a mnemonic
as it is a simplified verse to convey a particular principle
with respect to the classic shoulder grab and the
40 Much of the transcriptions from the script found in the treatises were extracted
from Rubboli – Cesari 2002. These transcriptions are more or less consistent with
the many other transcriptions available online in the Internet and some minor corrections
were edited into the transcriptions to improve their consistency with the
original text.

8É"I%"+"%3&E*&>$&É%*B"%3&*2&dB3E'$&+$O:$
e in questa presa
+$3
>*O1*& FB6& 1"& 6"2& E'"2F:"& 1$& EB$& I%"+$& 8%*''$&
in la
>*3O"8B%"&831&EB$&I%"+$&8%*''$
e la sua dritta mano
metta chosi dritta apresso lo suo cubito
3&>$C&EBI*'$&;"+"&
1"&>%3E"&831&E3O$28$&+$O:$
+$3&>*O1*1B&*2&dB311$&6$8$&
e daga la uolta ala persona
E per quello modo
o ello an-
dara in terra
$B3%$&1$&I%"+$&O1*&E3%Ç&8*E1$O"8$.
To je prva igra "I%"+"%3 in vsak stav
v "I%"+"%3&1"=/$&0%:-4:&2&*$&-'%$&-3&*"&0%-#:!L 40
in sicer da z levo roko primeš njegovo desno
roko
v pregib njegove desne roke in desno roko
daš za njegov komolec in potem nenadoma izvedem
prijem »presan&4%>':&-'%:L&>#:1&'"&B$!&3"!%:;&
tako
-3&!>&."8>/"1&*:1$&-3&3"&*"&3";-3&'"&B$!
80%"2-1&3"&*1"&"1-&!>&B$!&-.0"=3-1&%$/$(
Gettyjevo besedilo vsebuje podrobnejši opis
-3&$B%"23"2$&!"3#&$;-*3-=&0$4%$B3$8*-&3"0"-
4"L&/-&80%:!1#"&-1>8*%"H-#$L&-3&#:&B$1#&-.4:1"3$&2&
primerjavi s prejšnjo razpravo. Vendar obe raz-
1-;-H-&0$4"#"*"&.:1$&0$4$B3"&/$3H:0*"&-3&4$8:-
'"*"&:3"/&>;3-&H-1#(&5"/$&4$81:43-&8*"&H:1$*3-&
razpravi Pisani-Dossi in Getty.
^:& 8-& $'1:4"!$& %".1-;-H$& )$%'"3L& 0%-!:%-
#"2"&.&i:**g#:2$&%"./%-#:L&4"&#:&B:8:4-1$&$B:=&
%".0%"2& 8/$%"#& 4$B:8:43$& :3"/$L& 2:34"%& #:&
%".1-;-H"&)$%'"3&>%:#:3"&0$0$13$!"&4%>'";:&
/$*&i:**g&-3&8:&.";3:&8&0$'1"2#:!&$&B$#:2"3#>&
3"& /$3#>& 8& /$0#-L& !:4*:!& /$& 8:& i:**g& .";3:&
z "I%"+"%3&"1-&%>2"3#:!(&C".1-;-H"&)$%'"3&#:&
*>4-&3"#/%"#I"&$4&28:=&*%:=&%".0%"2L&8"#&!"3#kata
poglavji "I%"+"%3 in daga. Vsebuje pa sli-
/:L&/-&0%-/".>#:#$&B$#:2"3#:&3"&/$3#>L&-3&3:/"#&
81-/&B$#:2"3#"&.&B$4"1$!&0%$*-&!:;>(
D01$I3$& %".!-I1#"3#:& $& *:!L& ."/"#& #:& %".-
1-;-H"& )$%'"3& *$1-/$& /%"#I"& $4& 4%>'-=& 42:=&
TR""`")/-"W&/W,"-/"m?8,-/0n"4%024)%$',19"1,"2?,4*-/"m'/1%-n9"1%8"4/"'%'%(%"'%"?8,-/0"%$,"
m?8/42n."h2D/'%"+8*E%"D/4/+%"'/"D,"02E$%"D2$-/"2?,4%),")%"m'/1%-n9"0/+)/0"12"&"
'%+%$-/&%'-*",4)/E%"4)%&1%"+8*E,"m?8,-/0n"2?,4*-/"+/-%'-/.
counter to such an attack it can easily be translated
into a physical reality by a student of the art.
Continuing on with the Getty’s text accompany-
*2O&':3&E"63&;*OB%3E&*2&*'E&@3%E*$2-&*'&%3"8E&"EL
vB3E'$&E*3&1$&>%*6$&+$O:$&83&"I%"+"%3
et ogni guardia
8f"I%"+"%3&E*&>$&l%*B"%3&*2&dB3E'$&+$O:$
e in questa presa
+$3
>*O1*&FB6&1"&6"2&E'"2F:"&1$&EB$&I%"+$&8%*''$&*2&1"&
>*3O"8B%"&831&EB$&I%"+$&8%*''$
e la sua dritta mano
metta chosi dritta apresso lo suo cubito
3&>$C&EBI*'$&;"+"&
1"&>%3E"&831&E3O$28$&+$O:$
+$3&>*O1*1B&*2&dB311$&6$8$&
e daga la uolta ala persona
E per quello modo
o ello an-
dara in terra
$B3%$&1$&I%"+$&O1*&E3%Ç&8*E1$O"8$.
5:*E&*E&':3&;*%E'&>1"C&$;&"I%"+"%3&"28&3@3%C&OB"%8
$;&"I%"+"%3&F"2&"%%*@3&*2&':*E&>1"C&"28&*2&':*E&:$18- 41
namely take hold with the left hand his right arm
in the
bend of his right arm and your right hand
is put like this right behind his elbow and then suddenly
I will make
':3&:$18&|>%3E"}&$;&':3&E3F$28&>1"C-&2"631C&W&F"'F:&
him in this way
and give a turn to his body and in this way I have him
go to the ground or I shall dislocate the arm of his.
The Getty’s text offers more detailed description
and examination of the subtleties of the actions in-
@$1@38& "FF$6>"2C*2O& ':3& *11BE'%"'*$2-& ]:*F:& ]3%3&
rendered with greater sophistication as compared
to the former treatise. Yet both versions convey very
similar concepts and achieve the same instructional
objective. This is consistent across the entire Pisani-
Dossi and Getty’s treatises.
5:3&3a"6*2"'*$2&$;&':3&!$%O"2fE&@3%E*$2-&"E&F$6pared
to the Getty’s reveals that the Morgan’s text is
23"%&]$%8Z;$%Z]$%8&E*6*1"%&'$&':3&K3''CfE.&b$]3@3%-&
':3& $%O"2*+"'*$2& $;& ':3& !$%O"2fE& *E& F$6>13'31C& 8*;ferent
from the Getty’s in that it begins with a sec-
'*$2&$2&F$6I"'E&$2&:$%E3I"F,&]*':&1"2F3E-&]:3%3"E&
41" v'")>,4"=2')/j)9"m>2$+n",4"%"'2*'"+/4=8,D,'E"%"m)>,'En"8/J/88,'E")2"%"E8%D"28"m?8/4%n."
e>/8/"%8/"'2"2)>/8"%??82?8,%)/"c'E$,4>"X28+4")2"+/4=8,D/")>/"m)>,'En9"X>/8/%49"
=2'),'*,'E",'")>/"4%0/"4)%)/0/')9")>/"'/j)",'4)%'=/"2J"m>2$+n"+/4=8,D/4"%'"%=),2'.
M I L I T A R Y H I S T O R Y ! 55

%".0%"2L&3"!-'>#:L&4"&%$/$0-8&3"#2:%#:*3:#:&3-&
B-1&4$/$3;"3&."%"4-&0$!"3#/"3#"&8%:48*:2&"1-&
4$'$4/$2L&/-&8$&$2-%"1-&3#:'$2$&-.2:4B$(&)$%da
je dal Fiore prednost drugim projektom in
#:&%".1-;-H"&)$%'"3&$8*"1"&2&$B1-/-&3:4$/$3;"nega
rokopisa. Poleg tega v predgovoru ni nobenega
posvetila pokrovitelju niti ne omenja
Nicola III.
[7&#$-"E
^:0%"2& #:& B-1& N-$%:& 4:-& *-!$&3#:'$2&201-2&2&I*:2-13-=&I$1"=&-3&
"/"4:!-#"=& .'$4$2-38/-=& B$%-13-=& 2:I;-3& -3&
!:;:2"3#"&0$&28:!&82:*>(&C:/$38*%>-%"*-&0$-
4$B$& !$+"& .& -!:3$!& N-$%:& ."=*:2"& $B8:+3:&
%".-8/"2:& "%=-2$2L& $8:B3-=& .B-%/& -3& /3#-+3-HL&
ki so še danes nedotaknjeni ali nedostopni.
Izdelava popolnejše in podrobnejše Fiorejeve
B-$'%"P-#:& B$& 28:/"/$%& 0%-80:2"1"& /& B$1#I:!>&
%".>!:2"3#>L& %".2$#>& -3& 3"4'%"43#-& "%6*+"re
*:%&!$%4"&."'$*$2-1"L&4"&8:&B$&*"&0$3$23$&
$+-21#:3"&$B1-/"&B$1#&0%-B1-+"1"&m%:83-H-nL&/$*&B-&
0%-;"/$2"1&8"!&N-$%:(
X3& /$3;3$L& %:/$38*%>/H-#"& -3& 0%"/8"& armi-
+"%3 ne moreta biti popolni brez obravnave in
"3"1-.:&28:=&*%:=&0%-%$;3-/$2(&@8"/&-!"&4$1$-
;:3:&:4-38*2:3:&2%1-3:&-3&1"8*3$8*-L&/-&0%-80:-
2"#$&/&$82:*1-*2-&*:&2:I;-3:(&c0"!$L&4"&B$!$&
s temeljito analizo razprav in raziskavami
8:/>34"%3-=& 2-%$2L& /$*& 8$& "%=-28/"& 0$%$;-1"&
-3& 4$/>!:3*-L& *:%& B$1#I-!& 0$.3"2"3#:!& N-$-
%:#"&/$*&.'$4$2-38/:&$8:B3$8*-L&"%6*+"%3 spet
0$2%3-1-& 0%2$*3-& 8*"*>8& H:1$2-*:& *:%& >;-3/$2--
*:& 3"0"4"13:& -3& $B%"!B3:& B$%-13:& 2:I;-3:& _&
>;-3/$2-*:&"1*:%3"*-2:&4"3"I3#-!&0%-1#>B1#:3-!&
2.=$43#"I/-!&8-8*:!$!(
/$,0"5"#
9"0>I;-3-& N-$%:#"& 4:-& &-./"."3"&;"8*&8&8/%B-
3$& %:/$38*%>/H-#$& -3& 0$3$23$& $+-2-*2-#$& B$%-1-
3:& 2:I;-3:L& .3"3:& /$*& Ä1Ö"%'3& 8311Ö"%6*+"%3ÅL&
/-& #$& #:& $0-8"1& 2& 82$#-=& %".0%"2"=& .& 3"81$2$!&
ÄFlos DuellatorumÅ& -3& ÄFior Battaglia”. Ta spis
8:&.";3:&.&$82:*1-*2-#$&!$+"L&/-&#:&3$8-1&-!:&N--
$%:L& -3& %"./%-#:& 3#:'$2$& +:1#$L& 4"& B-& 8:& >;-1& -3&
2"4-1& 8*"%$4"23:& B$%-13:& 2:I;-3:& 0%-& 3"#2:;#-=&
3:!I/-=& -3& -*"1-#"38/-=& !$#8*%-=& *-8*:& 4$B:(&
56 ! V O J A Š K A Z G O D O V I N A
':3& K3''CfE& E'"%'E& ]*':& "I%"+"%3& $%& O%">>1*2O.& 5:3&
!$%O"2fE&*E&"1E$&':3&E:$%'3E'&$;&':3&':%33&'%3"'*E3E-&
]:3%3IC& ':3& "I%"+"%3& "28& 8"O"& E3F'*$2E& "%3& F$6-
>13'31C&"IE32'.&b$]3@3%-&':3%3&"%3&>1"'3E&]:*F:&83>*F'&
wrestling on horseback and some plates depicting
dagger against sword.
The general thinking about why the Morgan’s is
so much shorter than the other two suggests that the
manuscript was in all probability not completed due
to lack of funds or events which precluded its completion.
Perhaps other projects took precedence and the
Morgan’s version was left as an incomplete manu-
EF%*>'.&5$&"88-&':3%3&*E&2$&838*F"'*$2&*2&':3&>%$1$OB3&
to a patron nor any mention of Nicolo III.
In Conclusion
Although Fiore dei Liberi was merely a footnote
*2&':3&"22"1E&$;&:*E'$%C-&83;*2*'31C&2$'&*2&':3&E"63&
13"OB3&"E&E$63&$;&':3&O%3"'&632&$;&':3&>3%*$8-&:*E&
*2;1B32F3&*2&':3&UQ st century can be vividly seen and
experienced across many historical fighting and
fencing schools and academies throughout the world.
The challenge of rebuilding the man who bore the
name Fiore will require exhaustive research into ar-
F:*@3E-& >3%E$2"1& F$113F'*$2E& "28& 1*I%"%*3E& ]:*F:& %3main
untouched or inaccessible today. Cultivating a
more complete and detailed biography of Fiore will
6$E'& 83;*2*'31C& "*8& *2& $B%& B283%E'"28*2O-& 83@31$>-
632'& "28& 3@$1B'*$2& $;& "%6*+"%3-& >3%:">E& 32EB%*2O&
':"'&':3&%3EB%%3F'38&;$%6&$;&"%6*+"%3&*E&F1$E3%&'$&':3&
»truth« as expected by Fiore himself.
D"E'1C-& ':3& %3F$2E'%BF'*$2& "28& >%"F'*F3& $;& "%6*-
+"%3& F"22$'& I3& F$6>13'3& ]*':$B'& %3;3%32F*2O& "28&
studying all three treatises. Each has certain unique
qualities and attributes which contribute to fleshing
out the art. It is hoped that as we learn more about
P*$%3-& ':%$BO:& F1$E3%& 3a"6*2"'*$2& $;& ':3& '%3"'*E3E&
and through research of secondary sources such as
"%F:*@38&%3F$%8E&"28&8$FB632'E-&"%6*+"%3&]*11&$2F3&
again reacquire its original status as a complete and
viable offensive and defensive fighting art system – a
viable alternative to today’s popular Eastern systems.
Summary
Fiore dei Liberi’s legacy created 600 years ago is
:$2$B%38&*2&':3&UQ st century with the careful reconstruction
and resurrection of the fighting art known
"E&Ñ1Ö"%'3&8311Ö"%6*+"%3z&:3&83EF%*I38&*2&:*E&'%3"'*E3E&
entitled “Flos Duellatorum” and “Fior di Battaglia”.
This paper will begin with an exploration of the
man who bore the name Fiore revealing his desire

Ill. 4: Trije igralci (Getty)
Ill. 4: The three players (Getty)
K#:'$2"& 80%:*3$8*& .& $%$+#:!& #:& B-1"& /1#>;3:'"&
0$!:3"&."&>80$8"B1#"3#:&I*:2-13-=&0$!:!B3-=&
Ä/$34$*#:%#:2Å&-3&$0-8$2"3#:&3#-=$2-=&4$8:+/$2&
3"&*>%3-%#-=L&/-&8$&8:&#-=&>4:1:+:2"1-(&D0-8&28:-
B>#:&*>4-&/%"*/$&0%-!:%#"13$&"3"1-.$&*%:=&%".-
1-;-H& %".0%"2:L& /-& 2/1#>;>#:#$J& %".1-;-H$& i:**g[
4G-'L&)D&4G-'&q@Re&2&!>.:#>&f$=3&A">1&
i:**gL&8*%"H-#L& /-& 3:2:%#:*3$& #"83$& 0%-;"#$& $&
-.%$;-1>& *:& 2:I;-3:L& -3P$%!"*-23"& B:8:4-1"& $B&
vsaki ilustraciji pa skupaj s slednjo predstavljajo
%:H:0*L&/-&#:&/$*&-.;%0:3&2-%&2&0$!$;&4"3"I3#-!&
%".-8/"2"!L&0%"/8-&-3&%:/$38*%>/H-#-&.'$4$2-3-
8/-=&B$%-13-=&2:I;-3&."=$4"(
Ill. 5: Trije igralci (Morgan)
Ill. 5: The three players (Morgan)
to learn and train in the ancient fighting arts under
the greatest German and Italian masters of the
time. His skills as a man at arms were critical in
his training of numerous notable “condottiere” and
the description of their conquests in the tournaments
they had participated in. The paper will also conduct
a brief comparative analysis of the three versions
of the treatise which include: Getty-Ludwig
@3%E*$2-&!N&DB8]*O&sGQc&1$F"'38&*2&':3&e$:2&H"B1&
K3''C&!BE3B6-&D$E&/2O313E-&kN/p&!$%O"2&@3%E*$2-&
!N& !.& cYc-& H*3%>$*2'Z!$%O"2& D*I%"%C-& M3]& g$%,&
0*'C-&kN/p&H*E"2*Z4$EE*&@3%E*$2-&$;&':3&P.&M$@"'*&F$1-
13F'*$2.&5:3&%3F$2E'%BF'*$2&"28&>%"F'*F3&$;&"%6*+"%3&
cannot be complete without referencing and studying
all three treatises as each possess certain unique
qualities and attributes which contribute to fleshing
out the art creating a complete self-defence and offensive
fighting art system comparable to many of
today’s Asian and Eastern fighting systems. It is
evident in the Western fighting arts community that
the treatises are considered important cornerstones
in todays research and reconstruction of historical
j3E'3%2& ;*O:'*2O& "%'E.& 5:3& %3"E$2E& "%3& 2B63%$BE-&
but perhaps their greatest value is their collection of
illustrations possessing remarkable clarity in con-
@3C*2O&':3&F$2F3>'E&*2&':3&"%'-&"28&':3&*6;$%6"'*@3&
'3a'&"FF$6>"2C*2O&3"F:&*11BE'%"'*$2-&'$O3':3%&F%3"'ing
a recipe for a comprehensive resource supporting
'$8"CfE&%3E3"%F:-&>%"F'*F3&"28&%3F$2E'%BF'*$2&$;&:*Etorical
Western fighting arts.
M I L I T A R Y H I S T O R Y ! 57

58 ! V O J A Š K A Z G O D O V I N A

9$1)*-7&2$#51)-7&D$>7--"'7&=)"E>5"-76"1+7&,&
)-5"141"57E)+)&F7-#7&GH(1)-8"1+7&)-&I)8:6-27&
;)-8"E#7
U0,*"%"#
Johannes Liechtenauer’s Martial Arts Doctrine
Interpreted by Hanko Döbringer and Sigmund
Ringeck
!
I GOR SANCIN
dramski igralec
'S=154>OF1'(2;IOF1'X=4I6=AY34'5'V4=2;9'X=4I6=AYFA'NCH'Z9'V4=24W'4?@6A=B'AH1CDO6>EA>GH;4OND6C>4ODOA
K:!I/"& !:;:2"18/"& $.(& B$%-13"& I$1"& #:&
8/>03-& 3".-2& ."& B$%-13-& 8-8*:!L& /"*:%:'"& >*:-
!:1#-*:1#& #:& B-1& f$="33:8& !1#-2-=&1"-/$!L&$B8:-
'"&B$#:2"3#:&.&%".1-;3-!&$%$+#:!L&."&3#-!&0"&
8$&#$&%".2-#"1-&-3&I-%-1-&4%>'-&!$#8*%-L&/$*&8*"&B-1"&
Hanko Döbringer in Sigmund Ringeck. Z nje-
3-!&$4/%-2"3#:!&$4&/$3H"&RW(&8*$1(&0"&4$&4"nes
se bistveno spreminja pogled na nekdanje
B$#:2"3#:L&/-&#:&B-1$&2&%:83-H-&*:=3-;3$&4$&0$-
4%$B3$8*-&-.4:1"3$&-3&#:&0$!:3-1$&*"/$&%:/$;&
visoko šolo borilne umetnosti tako peš kot na
konju. Vse to je tudi del slovenske zgodovine.
!"#$%&'( )'*'+',& 3:!I/"& !:;:2"18/"&
I$1"L& !:;:2"3#:L& B$%-13:& 2:I;-3:L& f$="33:8&
34&C-3-
':H/L&N:H=*B>H=(
!":3#7&:"%",7*'#7&3$*7
K:!I/"& !:;:2"18/"& I$1"& -.="#"& -.& 4%>':&
0$1$2-H:&R\(&8*$1:*#"L&'%:&0"&."&B$%-13-&8-8*:!L&
/-& 8$& '"& !:;:2"18/-& !$#8*%-& 0$& 28:#& 8%:43#-&
Evropi oziroma v svetem rimskem cesarstvu
Summary
The German School of Fencing respectively
Martial Arts is a common term denoting the combat
system established by Johannes Liechtenauer. In
Central Europe it was used from the second half of
the 14 th century until the end of the 16 th &F32'B%C-&"28&
is described in martial arts manuals (Fechtbücher)
written by the then masters. Liechtenauer’s Martial
/%'E&4$F'%*23-&]%*''32&*2&F$6>13a&@3%E3E&*2&"&6"2-
23%&*2F$6>%3:32E*I13&'$&':3&1"*F-&"88%3EE3E&F$6I"'&
with various weapons. The doctrine was further de-
@31$>38&IC&$':3%&6"E'3%E-&EBF:&"E&b"2,$&4qI%*2O3%&
and Sigmund Ringeck.
N*2F3&*'E&8*EF$@3%C&"'&':3&328&$;&':3&QV th century
':3& O323%"1& @*3]& $2& !38*3@"1& F$6I"'-& ]:*F:& ]"E&
technically perfected and actually presented a high
38BF"'*$2"1&*2E'*'B'*$2&$;&6"%'*"1&"%'E-&I$':-&$2&;$$'&
"28&$2&:$%E3-&:"E&F$2E*83%"I1C&F:"2O38.&/11&':*E&*E&
also a part of Slovenian history.
Key words:&':3&K3%6"2&NF:$$1&$;&P32F*2O-&;32F-
*2O-& 6"%'*"1& "%'E-& e$:"223E& D*3F:'32"B3%-& b"2,$&
4qI%*2O3%-&N*O6B28&`*2O3F,-&P3F:'IBF:.&
The German School of Fencing
The German School of Fencing was established in
the second half of the 14 th century and is the martial
arts system taught by fencing masters in Central
Europe respectively the Holy Roman Empire from the
M I L I T A R Y H I S T O R Y ! 59

0$>;:2"1-&$4&8%:4-3:&R\(&0"&28:&4$&/$3H"&RS(&
8*$1:*#"&-3&#:&$0-8"3&2&*"/%"*3-=&>;B:3-/-=&"1-&
B$1#:&0%-%$;3-/-=&$&B$#:2"3#>L&*(&-(&Fechtbücher.
@:1-/"& 2:;-3"& "2*$%#:2& *:=& !:;:2"18/-=&
>;B:3-/$2& #:& 81:4-1"& 7."%:8& "1-& 0"& 28"#& 4:/1"-
%"*-23$?& >;:3#>& f$="33:8"& ;-*:1#"& R\(& 8*$1:*#"(& 4-&28:L&/"%&2:!$&$&3#:!(&
Edini in najzgodnejši vir o njem in njegovem
>;:3#>&#:&3"!%:;&%$/$0-8L&.3"3&/$*&/$4:/8&)D&
eVVk"&7Kd%3B:%':%&l"348H=%-P*&iK)&eVVk"?&
-.&1:*"&ReZWL&/-&'"&4"3:8&=%"3-&i:%!"3-8H=:8&
Nationalmuseum v Nürnbergu. V njem o Lie-
H=*:3">:%#>&-.2:!$&1:&*$L&4"&#:&B-1&m2:1-/-&!$#-
8*:%nL&/-&#:&m0%:0$*$2"1&I*:2-13:&4:+:1:nL&4"&B-&
-.0$0$13-1&82$#$&2:I;-3$(
@&Kd%3B:%I/:!&%$/$0-8>L&0"&*>4-&2&I*:2-13-=&
0$.3:#I-=&B$%-13-=&0%-%$;3-/-=L&#:&/&$=%"3#:3&2&$B1-/-&%-!"3-=&2:%.$2L&
."0-8"3-=&»mit verdeckten und verborgen worten«L&
-.#:!3$& =:%!:*-;3$& $.-%$!"& 3"!:%3$&
zapleteno in za laike nerazumljivo. Iz njego-
2:'"&3">/"&0"&8:&#:&%".2-1$&*$L&/"%&8$&0$.3:#:&
0$-!:3$2"1-&3:!I/"&!:;:2"18/"&I$1"J&B$%-13-&
8-8*:!L&/-&#:&*:!:1#-1&3"&0%:0%$8*$8*-L&=-*%$8*-&-3&
8/%"#3-&>;-3/$2-*$8*-L&/-&8$&8/>0"#&*2$%-1:&8!%-
*$3$83$&B$%-13$&2:I;-3$(&
&%".1"'"1-L&%".2-#"1-L&
4:13$&0"&*>4-&80%:!-3#"1-&_&3"*"3;3:#:&0%-1"'"-
#"1-&_&I*:2-13-&!:;:2"18/-&!$#8*%-&$4&l"3/"&Oy-
B%-3':%#"L& ;-'"%& /$!:3*"%& L&0%:/&
Sigmunda Ringecka in Petra von Danziga do
A">1"&l:H*$%#"&)"-%"&-3&f$"H=-!"&):g:%#"(&@&
0%-%$;3-/-=&-.&4%>':&0$1$2-H:&RY(&8*$1:*#"&*"/$&
3"#4:!$&*>4-&8:.3"!&0%-0"43-/$2&*(&-(&;:3#"&-3&'%"4-1-&3"&*:#&0$41"'-(&A%--
0"4"*-&;-*:1#-L& /"*:%-=& >;:3#:&
#:&B-1$&1:&!"1$&0$2:."3$&.&338&"28&
3a'%363&3;;3F'*@323EE-&;$%6*2O&"&83"81C&6"%'*"1&"%'.
By the end of the 14 th century and throughout the
15 th and the 16 th &F32'B%*3E-&D*3F:'32"B3%fE&ECE'36&]"E&
F$6632'38&$2-&3a>"2838&"28&>"%'1C&"1E$&6$8*;*38&
or - to put it in other words – adapted by a range of
;32F*2O&6"E'3%E-&*2F1B8*2O&b"2,$&4qI%*2O3%-&]:$E3&
commentaries on Liechtenauer’s verses are found in
':3&Mo%2I3%O3%&b"28EF:%*;'-&N*O6B28&`*2O3F,&"28&
H3'3%& @$2& 4"2+*O-& "28& F$2'*2B38& IC& H"B1BE& b3F'$%&
Mair and Joachim Meyer. Manuals originating from
the second half of the 15 th century contain lists of
members of the so-called “Society of Liechtenauer”
9K3E311EF:";'& D*3F:'32"B3%E=-& ]:*F:& 1*E'38& ;32F*2O&
masters who were standing in the tradition of Master
Liechtenauer. In the second half of the 15 th &F32'B%C-&
it became in fact almost compulsory for any self-respecting
fencing master to present himself as stand-
*2O&*2&D*3F:'32"B3%fE&'%"8*'*$2-&3@32&*;&':3&*2;1B32F3&
]"E& E$63'*63E& '32B$BE-& $%& E$63& 313632'E& *2& $B'right
conflicted with certain tenets of Liechtenauer’s.
/'&':*E&>$*2'-&*'&E:$B18&I3&36>:"E*E38&':"'&':3&'3%6&
“German School of Fencing” is in reality confusing
"28&*2">>%$>%*"'3-&C3'&*'&O"*238&O%$B28&':%$BO:$B'&

."2"#"#$;& -3& 3:>8*%:.:3L& 2:34"%& 8:& #:& 2& .'$-
4$2-3-& *"/$& >2:1#"2-1L& 4"& '"& I:& 4"3:8& >0$%"bljamo.
Izraz »fechtennL& /-& 8:& 4"3:8& 4:#"38/$&
>0$%"B1#"& 0%2:38*2:3$& 2& 0$!:3>& m!:;:2"*-nL&
#:&-!:1&3"!%:;&2&8%:43#:2:I/-&3:!I;-3-&4$8*-&
I-%I-&0$!:3L&8"#&#:&$B8:'"1&B$#:2"3#:&.&%".1-;-
3-!&$%$+#:!L&3:&1:&.&!:;:!(&h:&2&&8:&3">/&3-&$!:#:2"1&.'$1#&3"&:3$&
$%$+#:(&@&P:H=*B>H=-=&8$&*"/$&$0-8"3-&0$8*$0/-&
>0$%"B:&4$1':'"&!:;"L&!:;"&-3&I;-*/"L&B$4"1"L&
sablje (langes Messer?L&0$8*$0/-&0%-&%$/$B$%B-L&
28:=&2%8*"=&B$#"&2&$/1:0>&-3&*>4-&0%-&B$#:2"3#>&
na konju. Zato bi bilo verjetno ustrezneje uporabiti
izraz »nemška borilna šola«. Vendar se je
-.%".&m!:;:2"18/"n&+:&*"/$&."/$%:3-3-1L&-3&*$&
3:&1:&2&81$2:38/:!L&!"%2:;&*>4-&7-3&0%:428:!?&
2& 4%>'-=& #:.-/-=L& 4"& B$& 3"#2:%#:*3:#:& $8*"1& 2&
splošni uporabi.
K:!I/"&!:;:2"18/"&$.-%$!"&B$%-13"&I$1"&8:&
#:&2&0%"/8-&$=%"3-1"&0%-B1-+3$&VYT&1:*L&$4&1:*"&
ReYT&4$&RSTTL&-3&#:&4"1"&H:1$&2%8*$&0$!:!B3-=&
!$#8*%$2& -3& 0%-%$;3-/$2L& 3"& 0$41"'-& /"*:%-=&
poskušamo danes rekonstruirati t. i. 7B2E'&83E&
Fechtens& $.-%$!"& 2:I;-3$& B$#:2"3#"(& h:& 3"#.-
'$43:#I-&2-%L&/-&#:&3"&2$1#$L&/$4:/8&)D&eVVk"L&
$!:3#"&3:/"#&!$#8*%$2L&/-&8$&B-1-&*"/$&/$*&l"3-
/$& OyB%-3':%& B$4-8-& 4L&
Jost von der Nyssen in Niklaus Preussen. Na
.";:*/>& RY(& 8*$1:*#"& 8*"& 3"#2:%#:*3:#:& 81:4-1"&
)"%*-3&l>348P:14&-3&f>4&M**(&D2$#&2%=&#:&3:!ška
šola nedvomno dosegla sredi 15. stoletja z
!$#8*%-L&/$*&8$&B-1-&D-'!>34&C-3':H/L&A:*:%&2$3&
O"3.-'L&E34%:"8&+B:L& !:4& /"*:%-!-& 2:1#"&
$!:3-*-&28"#&,%"*$2I;-3$&82(&)"%/"&7St. Marks
Bruderschaft?L&/-&#:&$4&1:*"&R\kZ&4$&RYkT&$B21"dovala
pouk bojevanja. Med pomembnejšimi
>;-*:1#-L&/-&8$&0>8*-1-&82$#&0:;"*&2&%".2$#>&B$%-1-
3:&4$/*%-3:&2&."43#-&;:*%*-3-&RY(&8*$1:*#"L&8$&B-1-&
!$#8*%-&f$="33:8&;:2"1&B$%-13-=&2:I;-3L&3-&
0$0$13$!"&#"83$L&"1-&#:&1:&-1>8*%-%"1&:3:'"&$4&
0%-%$;3-/$2& "1-& #:& 3"& 0$41"'-& 82$#-=& B$%-13-=&
izkušenj napisal svojega. Pomembno delo je
history and is still used in this day and age. The term
fechten is nowadays primarily used in the sense of
l;32F*2Of-& IB'& :"8& "& I%$"83%& 63"2*2O& *2& ':3& 638*-
3@"1&K3%6"2&1"2OB"O3-&"E&*'&832$'38&;*O:'*2O&]*':&
a variety of weapons and not only swords. Already
*2&D*3F:'32"B3%fE&'*63-&*2E'%BF'*$2E&*2&6"%'*"1&"%'E&
were not limited to a single weapon. The martial arts
manuals of that time also described a range of tech-
2*dB3E&;$%&BE*2O&':3&1$2OE]$%8-&E]$%8&"28&IBF,13%-&
8"OO3%-&1"2O3E&!3EE3%-&"28&;$%&B2"%638&]%3E'1*2O&*2&
I$':&"%6$B%38&"28&B2"%6$B%38&F$6I"'-&"28&E$63-
'*63E&"1E$&*2&6$B2'38&F$6I"'.&W'&]$B18-&':3%3;$%3-&
be more appropriate to use the term “German School
$;& !"%'*"1& /%'Ez.& M3@3%':313EE-& ':3& '3%6& Ñ;32F*2Oz&
'$$,&%$$'&*2&@"%*$BE&1"2OB"O3E-&*2F1B8*2O&N1$@32*"2-&
and will most probably remain in general use.
5:3&:*E'$%C&$;&':3&K3%6"2&NF:$$1&$;&P32F*2O-&%3-
E>3F'*@31C&':3&NF:$$1&$;&!"%'*"1&/%'E-&E>"2E&%$BO:1C&
UXS&C3"%E-&;%$6&QcXS&'$&QRSS-&"28&>%$8BF38&"&%"2O3&
$;& E*O2*;*F"2'& ;32F*2O& 6"E'3%E& "28& 6"2B"1E-& ]:*F:&
E3%@3& "E& "& I"E*E& ;$%& %3F$2E'%BF'*2O& ':3& 7B2E'& 83E&
P3F:'32E&9"%'&$;&;*O:'*2O=.&_B%&3"%1*3E'&E$B%F3-&F$83a&
!N&cUUm"-&"1%3"8C&632'*$2E&"&2B6I3%&$;&6"E'3%E-&
who were - as Hanko Döbringer considered them -
peers or students of Liechtenauer and along with him
83@31$>38&':3*%&$]2&ECE'36E.&PB%':3%6$%3-&':3&8$FB-
632'& 632'*$2E& /28%3"E& eB8-& e$E'& @$2& 83%& MCEE32&
and Nikolaus Preussen. Fencing masters at the beginning
of the 15 th century include Martin Hundsfeld
"28&_''&':3&e3].&k28$BI'381C-&':3&6*8ZQX th century
marks the peak of the German School of Fencing and
*2F1B838&;32F*2O&6"E'3%E&EBF:&"E&N*O6B28&`*2O3F,-&
H3'3%&@$2&4"2+*O-&/28%3"E&D*O2*'+3%-&b"2E&5"1:$;;3%&
"28-&;*2"11C-&H"B1&7"1.&
During the second half of the 15 th & F32'B%C-& ':3&
K3%6"2&7B2E'&83E&P3F:'32E&I3F"63&@3%C&>$>B1"%&"28&
various new martial arts schools or associations rose
"11&"%$B28&3-&"6$2O&]:*F:&':3&)%$':3%:$$8&$;&
St. Mark (St. Marks Brüderschaft) should be pointed
$B'-& "E& *'& O$@3%238& F$6I"'& '3"F:*2O& ;%$6& Q[mY& '$&
1570. The most significant masters who greatly influenced
the development of the martial arts doctrine
in the late 15 th &F32'B%C&]3%3&e$:"223E&D3F,oF:23%-&
H3'3%&P"1,23%&"28&b"2E&@$2&N>3C3%.&eq%O&j*1:"16-&
Hans Wurm and even Albrech Dürer continued their
work at the beginning of the 16 th &F32'B%C.&b$]3@3%-&*'&
*E&2$'&$I@*$BE-&]:3':3%&4o%3%-&]:$&"16$E'&F3%'"*21C&
8*8&2$'&'3"F:&6"%'*"1&"%'E-&$21C&*11BE'%"'38&$23&$;&':3&
6"2B"1E&$%&]%$'3&:*E&$]2&6"2B"1-&I"E38&$2&:*E&$]2&
combat experience. Around the mid 16 th & F32'B%C-&
Paulus Hector Mair undertook the significant work
of rewriting and illustrating the one-hundred-year-
$18&P3F:'IBF:&IC&N*O6B28&`*2O3F,-&"28&"1$2O&]*':&
M I L I T A R Y H I S T O R Y ! 61

2&E>'8B>%'>&0%$*-&8%:4-3-&RS(&8*$1:*#"&$0%"2-1&
*>4-&A">1&l:H*$%&)"-%L&/-&#:&4"1&0%:0-8"*-&-3&-1>-
8*%-%"*-&0%-B1-+3$&8*$&1:*&8*"%&Fechtbuch Sigmun-
4"&C-3':H/"L&0$1:'&*:'"&#:&.B%"1&-3&$B#"2-1&2:;&
.B$%3-/$2&%".1-;3-=&"2*$%#:2&RY(&-3&RS(&8*$1:*#"(&
9"43#-&!$#8*:%L&;-'"%&4:1$&0$.3"!$&-3&#:&3:0$-
8%:43$&-.="#"1&-.&&%".2-1-&0$&:2%$08/-=&!:8*-=(&A%-&
3#:!&8$&>0$%"B1#"1-&-.#:!3$&1"=/$&$%$+#:L&-3&*$&
2&0$0$13$!"&4%>'";3-=&%".!:%"=L&/$*&#:&B-1$&
$B-;"#3$&3"&B$#-I;-=&-3&*>%3-%#-=&8%:43#:2:I/:&
F2%$0:(&5"&$B1-/"&!:;:2"3#"&8:&#:&0$.3:#:&%".vila
v t. i. »gentlemen's art«L&/-&8&0%"2-!&B$#:2"-
3#:!&3"&B$#3:!&0$1#>&3-&-!:1"&3-;&8/>03:'"(&
@&RW(&8*$1:*#>&8$&#$&P$%!"1-.-%"1-&-3&/$3;3$&#:&
-.&3#:&3"8*"1&$1-!0-#8/-&I0$%*L&/$*&'"&0$.3"!$&
danes.
D%:43#:2:I/$&!:;:2"3#:&*$%:#&3-&-3&3:&!$%:&
biti nekakšna zgodnejša in temu ustrezno pri-
!-*-23:#I"&$B1-/"&!:;:2"3#"L&/-&B-&8:&0$.3:-
#:&%".2-1"&2&0%:P-3#:3$&2:I;-3$(&c0$I*:2"*-&#:&
3"!%:;&*%:B"&*>4-&3:2:%#:*3:&80%:!:!B:&0%-&
62 ! V O J A Š K A Z G O D O V I N A
that he compiled all the knowledge on the art of fencing
and published several bulletins of various 15 th to
16 th &F32'B%CfE&"B':$%E.&5:3&1"E'&;32F*2O&6"E'3%-&]:$E3&
work is known today and who directly descended
;%$6& D*3F:'32"B3%fE& '%"8*'*$2-& ]"E& e$"F:*6& !3C3%.&
His martial arts manual was published in 1570. The
;$B28"'*$2& $;& ':3& 6"%'*"1& "%'E& EF:$$1& P383%;3F:'3%-&
which continued the tradition of the German School
$;&P32F*2O-&*2&G*322"-&;"11E&*2'$&':3&@3%C&E"63&C3"%.
Fechtbücher
!"%'*"1&"%'E&6"2B"1E&]3%3&8*EF$@3%38&*2&':3&QV th
century and upturned the general opinion that medi-
3@"1&F$6I"'&]"E&63%3&I%B'"1&E1"BO:'3%*2O-&]:*F:&8*8&
not require any specific expertise. According to this
$>*2*$2-&638*3@"1&6"%'*"1&"%'E&]3%3&6"*21C&I"E38&$2&
E:33%&>:CE*F"1&E'%32O':-&]:3%3"E&;32F*2O-&"FF$%8*2O&
'$&':*E&':3$%C-&83@31$>38&*2'$&"&%3"1&6"%'*"1&"%'&$21C&
in the High Renaissance with the occurrence of rapiers
and completely new rapier fencing techniques.
5:*E&F$2@*F'*$2&*E&>%3E32'&3@32&2$]"8"CE-&*2&>"%'*FB-
1"%&"E&"&%3EB1'&$;&6$@*3E&]:*F:&E:$]&l;32F*2Of&':"'&
has nothing in common with this type of martial
arts and also as a result of modern competitive fenc-
*2O&]:*F:-&"E&"&6"''3%&$;&;"F'-&83%*@38&;%$6&':3&1"'-
'3%-&':3&I"%$dB3&W'"1*"2&"28&N>"2*E:&;32F*2O&EF:$$1.&
Competitive fencers are to a great extent convinced
that the modern form of the sport of fencing is the
most developed form of European fencing and that
it is by far more demanding in terms of knowledge
and skills than any other older form of fencing which
83@31$>38&*2&3&*2&':3&>"E'.&g3'-&':*E&*E&2$'&'%B3.&
The sport of fencing originates mainly in urban selfdefence
fencing which was developed in European cities
in the 18 th &F32'B%C.&P$%&':*E&>B%>$E3-&3a'%3631C&
light weapons were used and they were employed in
completely different circumstances than those common
on battlefields and tournaments held in medieval
Europe. This technique developed later into the
E$ZF"1138& ÑO32'13632fE& "%'z& $;& ;32F*2O-& ]:*F:& :"8&
absolutely nothing in common with combat on bat-
'13;*318E.&W2&':3&QV th &F32'B%C-&*'&]"E&;$%6"1*E38&"28&
;*2"11C&83@31$>38&*2'$&':3&_1C6>*F&E>$%'E&8*EF*>1*23&
as we know it today.
b32F3-&638*3@"1&;32F*2O&*E&2$'-&"28&F"22$'&I3-&"2&
3"%1*3%& 'C>3& $;& ;32F*2O& "28-& ':BE-& "& >%*6*'*@3& ;$%6&
$;& *'-& ]:*F:& 1"'3%& 83@31$>38& *2'$& "& %3;*238& "28& E$-
>:*E'*F"'38& E,*11.& _B'E'"28*2O& 6$8*;*F"'*$2E& *2& ':3&
83@31$>632'& $;& ]3">$2E& "28& F$6I"'& '3F:2*dB3E-&
]:*F:&$FFB%%38&"1%3"8C&*2&':3&`32"*EE"2F3-&"28&3@32&
1"'3%&*2&':3&)"%$dB3-&:"8&"&E*O2*;*F"2'&*6>"F'&$2&':3&
F:"2O3E&*2&':3&BE3&$;&;32F*2O&'3F:2*dB3E.&N*6*1"%1C-&

O$!3:23"&81-/"&f$="33:8"&&$%$+#"&-3&B$#3:&*:=3-/:L&/-&8$&8:&0$-
#"2-1:&+:&2&%:3:8"38-L&I:&B$1#&0"&0$.3:#:&2&B"-
%$/>L&-3&8$&$41$;-13$&201-2"1:&3"&80%:!:!B:&
2& >0$%"B-& !:;:2"18/-=& *:=3-/(& A%"2& *"/$& 3:&
'%:& ."3:!"%-*-& +:& 0%:'$2$%3:'"& 0%"'!"*-.-
!"&:2%$08/:'"&;1$2:/"L&/-&.&3:;-!L&/"%&3-&2:;&
-!:1$&0%"/*-;3:&>0$%"B3:&2%:43$8*-L&3-/"/$%&
3-&=$*:1&-.'>B1#"*-&;"8"(&9"%"4-&*:'"&8:&#:&.3"-
3#:L&2:I;-3"L&/-&#:&3"8*"#"1"&*-8$;1:*#"L&2&3:/"#&
':3:%"H-#"=&-.'>B-1"L&*-8*$L&/"%&#$&#:&3"4$!:-
8*-1$L&0"&#:&-!:1$&.&3#$&1:&3:/"#&8*-;3-=&*$;/( 1
1 John Clements, Medieval Swordsmanship: Illustrated Methods and Techniques,
Boulder 1998, str. 4–5.
H"*2'*2O&6$E'&1*,31C&83>*F'*2O&D*3F:'32"B3%-&H3'3%&@$2&4"2+*OfE&
6"%'*"1&"%'E&6"2B"1&9Q[XU=
the proverbial paradigm of the European man should
I3& F$2E*83%38-& ]:$& 8*8& 2$'& ]"2'& '$& 1$E3& '*63& ]*':&
E$63':*2O&':"'&]"E&$;&2$&>%"F'*F"1&@"1B3.&5:3%3;$%3-&
the knowledge and expertise that had developed during
thousands of years was lost within a few gen-
3%"'*$2E& "28-& ':BE-& ]:"'& *'& ]"E& %3>1"F38& ]*':& :"8&
retained just a few common aspects. 1
03%'"*21C-&$23&2338E&'$&I3&"]"%3&$;&':3&;"F'&':"'&
the techniques described in martial arts manuals belong
to the high school of the art of fencing and that
the real combat on the battlefields proceeded in a
1 John Clements, Medieval Swordsmanship: Illustrated Methods and Techniques,
Boulder 1998, pp. 4–5.
M I L I T A R Y H I S T O R Y ! 63

D:2:4"&8:&#:&*%:B"&."2:4"*-&*>4-L&4"&8$4-#$&
2:I;-3:L& $0-8"3:& 2 B$%-13-=& 0%-%$;3-/-=L& *"/$&
%:/$;&2&2-8$/$&I$1$&!:;:2"18/:&>!:*3$8*-&*:%&
da je bila bitka na bojnem polju videti popol-
3$!"& 4%>'";:(& A$8*$0/-L& $0-8"3-& 2& 3:!I/-=&
FechtbücherL& 8$& B-1-& 3"!%:;& 3"!:3#:3-& 0%:4-
28:!&42$B$#:2"1H:!L&-3&*$&2&P$%!"13-=&8$43-=&
42$B$#-=(&5-&8$&B-1-&3";:13$&+:&8-H:%&-.#:!3-&B$-
#:23-/-L&;:&0"&8$&8:&.3"I1-&2&0$1$+"#>L&/$&8$&8:&
!$%"1-&0$!:%-*-&.&3"80%$*3-/$!&3"&+-21#:3#:&-3&
8!%*&2&8$43:!&42$B$#>L&8$&$B-;"#3$&3"#:1-&B$-
%-13:'"&>;-*:1#"L&4"&B-&8:&;-!B$1#:&0%-0%"2-1-&3"&
42$B$#(&5:!>&8$&B-1-&2&3"#2:;#-&!:%-&3"!:3#:3-&
B$%-13-&0%-%$;3-/-L&$B%"23"2"3-&2&*:!&0%-80:2ku.
Fechtbücher&*$%:#&3-8$&B-1-&0%-%$;3-/-&."&B$-
#:23-/:L&I:&!"3#&>;B:3-/-&."&B$4$;:&B$#:23-/:(&
;-1-&
82$#:& 8*%"3/:& 4$1$;:3-=& 0$8*$0/$2L&$4&$B21"-
4$2"3#"& /"*:%-=& B-& >*:'3-1& B-*-& $42-8:3& -.-4&
42$B$#"(&0$%"B1#"1-&0$.3"-
2"1H-L&/-&8$&>;-1-&+:&2:I;:&B$#:23-/:L&8$&B-1-&_&2&
*"/-&$B1-/-L&/$*&8$&3"0-8"3-&_&*>4-&8!-8:13-&-3&
/$%-8*3-(&K"2$4-1"L&/-&#-=&28:B>#:#$L&8$&3"!%:;&
B%:.&4$4"*3:&%".1"':&."&2:;-3$&1#>4-&0$0$13$-
!"&3:%".>!1#-2"L&0%:428:!&0"&3-8$&4$2$1#&0$-
4%$B3"L&4"&B-&#-=&I-%I-&/%$'&>0$%"B3-/$2&1"=/$&
-3*:%0%:*-%"1& B%:.& 0$!$;-& -.2:4:3H"(& 9"*$& 8$&
bila tudi napisana »mitt verborgen vnd verdeck-
'32&]$%'32-&8"%B6I&8"E&8*3&,B2E'&2*''&O36"*2&
solt werden« – »s skrivnostnimi in dvoumnimi
B:8:4"!-L&4"&2:I;-3"&3:&B-&!$'1"&0$8*"*-&$B--
;"#3"n&7*(&#(J&801$I3$&.3"3"&_&$0(&0%:2(?( V
Seveda obstajajo med posameznimi danes
.3"3-!-& B$%-13-!-& 0%-%$;3-/-& 2:1-/:& %".1-/:(&
A%-8*$0&/&83$2-&#:&B-1&0%-&3:/"*:%-=L&4:3-!$&0%-&
l"3/>&OyB%-3':%#>L&0$'$#3$&%:;:3$&B$1#&/$3-
H:0*>"1:3L&0%-8*$0&4%>'-=L&3"&0%-!:%&D-'!>3-
4"& C-3':H/"& -3& A:*%"& 2$3& O"3.-'"L& 0"& -.%".--
*$& *:=3-;:3(& K:/"*:%-& 8$& 0$>4"%#"1-& P-1$.$P-#$&
B$#:2"3#"L& *:!:1#3:& 0%-3H-0:& $EE*I13.& !"%'*"1& "%'E& 6"2B"1E-& %3-
;3%%38&'$&*2&':*E&"%'*F13-&]3%3&6"*21C&]%*''32&;$%&':"'&
>B%>$E3.&5:3&P3F:'IoF:3%-&:32F3-&]3%3&23*':3%&6"2B-
"1E&;$%&]"%%*$%E&2$%&6"2B"1E&;$%&;B'B%3&]"%%*$%E-&IB'&
were intended for fencing masters (Fechtmeistern or
NF:*%663*E'3%2=-&]:$&]3%3&"1%3"8C&;"6*1*"%*E38&]*':&
"11&':3&83'"*1E&$;&6"%'*"1&"%'E-&IB'&BE38&':3&6"2B"1E&
;$%& '%"*2*2O& ;B'B%3& 8B311*E'E.& !$E'& 1*,31C-& ':3C& BE38&
them as support material that enabled them to teach
certain procedures to their clients in a relatively sys-
'36"'*F"1&]"C&"28&*2&':3&E:$%'3E'&'*63&>$EE*I13-&$2&
]:*F:&':3&%3EB1'&$;&':3&8B31&83>32838&B>$2.&b32F3-&
these manuals had to be used reasonably and were
helpful only if used by experts for training skilled
warriors. The instructions that are provided by these
documents are given without any explanation and
"%3-& :32F3-& ;$%& ':3& 6"#$%*'C& $;& >3$>13-& F$6>13'31C&
*2F$6>%3:32E*I13.& /I$@3& "11-& ':3C& "%3& 2$'& 83'"*138&
enough for a broader circle of users who are not able
to interpret them without the assistance of an expert.
They were written “mitt verborgen vnd verdeckten
]$%'32-&8"%B6I&8"E&8*3&,B2E'&2*''&O36"*2&E$1'&]"%-
832z&h&Ñ*2&"&F$838&"28&"6I*OB$BE&1"2OB"O3-&E$&':"'&
the skill could not be commonly known”. U
5:3%3&"%3-&*28338-&F$2E*83%"I13&8*;;3%32F3E&"6$2O&
individual martial arts manuals that are presently
known to us. While the approach in the manuals
written by some authors like Hanko Döbringer
]"E-& '$& "& 1*6*'38& 3a'32'-& $;& "& 6$%3& F$2F3>'B"1& 2"-
'B%3-&$':3%E-&;$%&3a"6>13&N*O6B28&`*2O3F,&"28&H3'3%&
@$2&4"2+*O-&BE38&"&6$%3&'3F:2*F"1&">>%$"F:.&j:*13&
some focused on the philosophy of combat and the
I"E*F& >%*2F*>13E& $;& D*3F:'32"B3%fE& 8$F'%*23-& $':3%E&
dealt with the technical details of the techniques.
The first as well as the second approach are of ex-
F3>'*$2"1&@"1B3-&"E&I$':&$;;3%&"&E"'*E;"F'$%C&*2E*O:'&
into and enable an understanding of the German
NF:$$1& $;& P32F*2O.& PB%':3%6$%3-& ':3& 6"2BEF%*>'E&
8*;;3%& 2$'& $21C& *2& '3%6E& $;& ">>%$"F:-& IB'& "1E$& *2&
terms of illustrations. The first two currently known
2 Sigmund Ringeck, Mscr. Dresd. C 487, Sächsische Landesbibliothek, Dresden, fol.
10v. The manual is accessible on the web page of the association AEMMA: http://
www.aemma.org. The transcription by Martin Wierschin can be found on the web
page of the association Die Freifechter: http://www.freifechter.org (accessed 19
November 2008).

pristop sta za današnje raziskovalce izjemno
4%"'$H:3"L& 8"#& 3"!& 1:& $B"& 8/>0"#& 0$3>#"*"&
."4$2$1#-2& 20$'1:4& -3& $!$'$;"*"& %".>!:2"-
3#:&*:'"L&/"%&-!:3>#:!$&3:!I/"&B$%-13"&I$1"(&
Posamezni rokopisi se izrazito razlikujejo ne
1:& 0$& 0%-8*$0>L& *:!2:;& *>4-& 0$& $0%:!1#:3$-
8*-(&A%2"&4$81:#&.3"3"&0%-%$;3-/"L&/$4:/8&)D&
eVVk"&-3&4:1$&D-'!>34"&C-3':H/"L&3:&28:B>-
#:*"&3$B:3:&-1>8*%"H-#:L&*:!2:;&.'$1#&B:8:4-1$(&
5>4-& 0%-%$;3-/"& )"%*-3"& l>348P:14"& $& B$#>&
z bodalom in boju v oklepu ter Juda Otta o
%$/$B$%B-L& $B"& -.& 0%2:& 0$1$2-H:& RY(& 8*$1:*#"L&
$;-*3$&3-8*"&28:B$2"1"&%-8BL&8"#&#-=&3:&3"#4:!$&
3-*-&2&4:1>&A:*%"&2$3&O"3.-'"L&/-&#:&1:*"&R\YV&
2/1#>;-1&B:8:4-1-&$B:=&!$#8*%$2&2&82$#$&%:4"/-
H-#$&;:3#"(&D-H:%&0"&#:&2$3&
O"3.-'$2& 0%-%$;3-/& 0%2-L& /-& #:& -.I:1& 3:0$8%:-
43$&-.&8*%-%"3L&2:34"%&#:&B:8:4-13-&
4:1&2&3#:!&-.%".-*$&0$!"3#/1#-2L&/"%&2:1#"&*>4-&
."& 4%>':L& 0$.3:#I:& 5"1=$PP:%#:2:& 0%-%$;3-/:(&
@&3#-=&#:&$B-;"#3$&$B&28"/-&-1>8*%"H-#-&1:&3:/"#&
besed. Popolno skrajnost pa predstavlja Codex
@-34$B$3:38-8&-.&8%:4-3:&RY(&8*$1:*#"L&/-&8-H:%&
3:&8$4-&3:0$8%:43$&2&$/2-%&4:1&;3$&-.&%-8BL&
brez kakršnega koli besedila.
!76#&D$>7--"'7&=)"E>5"-76"1+7&
,&#$2"#'6&]I&LMM^7&)04$2&4"1"'7&
-+"8$,"87&6%"-E7?&#*"1)#7&F7-#7&
GH(1)-8"1+7
M83$2$& &!:-
;:2&3"80%$*3-/$2(
-.'/'
F4:3& $4& $83$23-=& 0%-3H-0$2& ;:3#"&#:&B-1"&8/%"#3"&>;-3/$2-*$8*L&0$-
2:."3"& 8& 0%:0%$8*$& -.2:4B$& %".1-;3-=& 0$8*$0kov.
Glede tega je bil veliki mojster izjemno
4$81:4:3L&/"%&8:&/"+:&+:&3"&.";:*/>L&8"#&#:&-.&
2:1-/:'"& 3"B$%"& 0%:+L& /-& 8$& #-=& >0$%"B1#"1-& 2&
3#:'$2:!&$B4$B#>L&-.B%"1&1:&I*-%-L&/-&8$&0$&3#:govem
mnenju popolnoma zadostovale.
6"2B"1E-& F$83a& !N& cUUm"& "28& ':3& 6"2BEF%*>'& IC&
Sigmund Ringeck do not include any illustrations
"28& F$2E*E'& $21C& $;& ]%*''32& '3a'.& PB%':3%6$%3-& ':3&
manuals written by Martin Hundsfeld on combat
]*':&8"OO3%E&"28&F$6I"'&*2&"%6$B%-&"E&]311&"E&':3&
6"2B"1& IC& _''& ':3& e3]-& I$':& $%*O*2"'*2O& ;%$6& ':3&
15 th &F32'B%C-&8$&2$'&*2F1B83&"2C&8%"]*2OE.&5:3E3&"%3&
2$'& 3@32& ;$B28& *2& H3'3%& @$2& 4"2+*OfE& 6"2BEF%*>'-&
"2&*2'3%>%3'"'*$2&$;&D*F:'32"B3%E&'3"F:*2OE-&8"'*2O&
;%$6&Q[XU-&]:*F:&*2F1B83E&'3a'E&$;&I$':&"I$@3Z632-
'*$238& 6"E'3%E.& b$]3@3%-& @$2& 4"2+*OfE& P3F:'IBF:&
is the first manual that was published in the direct
tradition of Liechtenauer’s work and was partly il-
1BE'%"'38.&)3;$%3&':*E&6"2BEF%*>'-&':3&K$':"&0$83a&
IC&b"2E&5"1:$;;3%&]"E&,2$]2.&5:*E&8$FB632'-&8"'-
*2O&;%$6&Q[[c-&]"E&1"@*E:1C&*11BE'%"'38-&C3'&*'E&'3a-
'B"1&>"%'&*E&F$2E*83%38&"E&*2EB;;*F*32'-&]:*F:&*E&@"1*8&
"1E$& ;$%& $':3%-& EBIE3dB32'& 5"1:$;;3%fE& 6"2B"1E.& /11&
illustrations in the manuals are accompanied by
a few words only. Another extreme is presented by
the Codex Vindobonensis from the mid–15 th &F32'B%C-&
]:*F:-&"1':$BO:&*'&8$3E&2$'&I31$2O&*2&':3&F$2'3a'&$;&
D*3F:'32"B3%fE&'%"8*'*$2-&F$2'"*2E&8%"]*2OE&]*':$B'&
any written texts.
Johannes Liechtenauer’s Teachings in the
Codex MS 3227a Written by His Student,
the Clergyman Hanko Döbringer
The basis of Liechtenauer’s martial arts doctrine
are the four fencing postures or the guards (vier
13O3%=-&;*@3&E'%*,3E&9;o2;&:3]3=-&':3&3;;$%'&$;&I3*2O&*2&
F$2'%$1&$;&':3&32O"O3632'&9@$%=-&':"'&*E&'$&'",3&$@3%&
"28&6"*2'"*2&':3&13"8&"E&]311&"E&l;331*2Of&9;o:132=-&
that is to sense the pressure of the enemy’s sword
which occurs when the swords of both opponents
make contact.
Guards
_23&$;&':3&I"E*F&>%*2F*>13E&$;&D*3F:'32"B3%fE&'3"F:ings
was extreme effectiveness linked with the performing
simplicity of various techniques. In this re-
O"%8-&':3&O%3"'&6"E'3%&]"E&3aF3>'*$2"11C&F$2E*E'32'.&
His consistency is evident from the very beginning as
for the large variety of guards that were used in his
1*;3'*63-&:3&E313F'38&IB'&;$B%&]:*F:&]3%3-&"FF$%8*2O&
'$&:*E&$>*2*$2-&"IE$1B'31C&"83dB"'3.&
ÑD*F:'2"]3%& :31'& 2B%& 3'+]"E& @$2& 83%& @*3%& 13O3%&
dorubme das sy aus den ober und under hengen gehen
doraus man schure mag gefechte brengen
Das ist von den vier leger
G*3%& 13O3%& "113C23& T& 8$& @$2& :"1'& B28& ;13]O& 8C&
M I L I T A R Y H I S T O R Y ! 65

|D*F:'2"]3%&:31'&2B%&3'+]"E&@$2&83%&@*3%&13O3%&
dorubme das sy aus den ober und under hengen
gehen doraus man schure mag gefechte brengen
Das ist von den vier leger
G*3%&13O3%&"113C23&T&8$&@$2&:"1'&B28&;13]O&8C&
O363C23&T&_F:E3&>;1BO&T&"1I3%&T&@$6&'"O3&2*F:'&
sy dir ümmer…«
m4"%H:2L& 0$& 4"%H-b&*-&8$&3:0%-#:*3$&0%:8:3:*-1-&3"-
80%$*3-/"L&/-&3-&B-1&8:.3"3#:3&.&B1#:3$8*#$&
B$%-13-=&2:I;-3&-3&3#:'$2:&I$1:&3"801$=&0$8*"1-&
splošno znani.
3 Germanisches Museum, Nürnberg, Cod. HS. 3227a; David Lindholm, Cod. HS.
3227a or Hanko Döbringer Fechtbuch from 1389, http://www.thearma.org/Manuals/Dobringer
_ A5 _ sidebyside.pdf (obiskano 19. 11. 2008).
66 ! V O J A Š K A Z G O D O V I N A
O363C23&T&_F:E3&>;1BO&T&"1I3%&T&@$6&'"O3&2*F:'&EC&
dir ümmer…”
“Liechtenauer holds only these four guards that
F$63&;%$6&':3&B>>3%&"28&1$]3%&:"2O*2OE-&"28&;%$6&
these one can fence safely.”
This is regarding the four guards [Vier
Leger]
P$B%& OB"%8E& $21C-& "28& 13"@3& ':3& F$66$2& $23E&
"1$23.&5:3&$a&x_F:E3y-&>1$BO:&xH;1BOy-&;$$1&x/1I3%y-&
;%$6&"I$@3T':3&%$$;&xG$6&5"O3y-&':3E3&E:$B18&2$'&I3&
unknown to you..” 3
Ochs – ’the ox’:
Stand with the left foot forward and hold the
E]$%8&'$&':3&%*O:'&E*83&$;&C$B%&:3"8-&]*':&':3&>$*2'&
aiming at the opponent’s face.
Pflug – ‘the plough’:
Stand with the left foot forward and hold the
E]$%8&'$&':3&%*O:'&E*83&"I$@3&C$B%&%*O:'&,233-&]*':&
your hands crossed and the point of the sword aiming
at the opponent’s face.
Alber – ‘the fool’s guard’:
N'"28&]*':&':3&%*O:'&;$$'&;$%]"%8-&]*':&':3&E]$%8&
held extended out and the point aiming towards the
ground.
Vom Tag – ‘from the roof’:
N'"28&]*':&':3&13;'&;$$'&;$%]"%8E-&:$18&':3&E]$%8&
extended to the side above the right shoulder or the
head.
Strikes
5:3%3& "%3& ;*@3& I"E*F& E'%*,3E& ]:*F:-& "FF$%8*2O& '$&
D*3F:'32"B3%-&"%3&"1E$&':3&$21C&$23E&':"'&"%3&]$%':&
employing during combat. Subsequent authors called
these the “master strikes” (meisterhawen). With the
3aF3>'*$2&$;&?$%2:"]-&':3E3&]3%3&:*8832&"''"F,&'3F:niques
which surprised the attacker who was not fa-
6*1*"%&]*':&D*3F:'32"B3%fE&'3"F:*2OE.&D"'3%-&]*':&':3&
success of the martial arts practised in Liechtenauer’s
EF:$$1E-&':3C&I3F"63&F$66$2&,2$]138O3.
ÑPB2;& :3]3& 13%3& T& @$2& 83%& %3F:'32& :"2'& ]3%3&
8C]3%3& T& ?$%2:"]& ,%B6>& ']3%3& T& :"'& EF:*113%& 6*'&
scheitlere…”
3 Germanisches Museum, Nürnberg, Cod. HS. 3227a; David Lindholm, Cod. HS.
3227a or Hanko Döbringer Fechtbuch from 1389, http://www.thearma.org/Manuals/Dobringer
_ A5 _ sidebyside.pdf (accessed 19 November 2008).

|PB2;&:3]3&13%3&T&@$2&83%&%3F:'32&:"2'&]3%3&
8C]3%3&T&,%B6>&']3%3&T&:"'&EF:*113%&6*'&EF:3*'13re…«
mA:*& >4"%H:2& .& 4:83:& 8*%"3-& 8:& 3">;-& 0%$*-&
$B%"!B-J& B:83:'"L& ."/%-21#:3:'"L& 0%:;3:'"L&
4%8:;:'"&8&*:!:38/-!(« 4
?@26&/4A(0()'*&B(4"B()'*&'%B($+46'.
9'$%3#-&>4"%:HL&/-&-.="#"&-.&2%=3#:&0%:+:&3"4&
4:83$&%"!$L&$B-;"#3$&>8!:%#:3&0%$*-&3"80%$tnikovi
zgornji levi strani.
!6$=5/4A(0(@436B1"#'&B($+46'.
9'$%3#-& >4"%:HL& /-& -.="#"& -.& .'$%3#:& 0%:+:&
3"4& %"!$L& >8!:%#:3& $4& 8*%"3-& 3"& %:.-1$& 3"-
80%$*3-/$2:'"&!:;"&"1-&3"&3#:'$2:&%$/:(&D:/"-
!$&8&0%:/%-+"3-!-&%$/"!-L&1"=/$&8&80%:43#-!&
ali z zadnjim robom rezila.
>A'6.//4A(0(56'%&B($+46'.
9'$%3#-&>4"%:HL&/-&-.="#"&-.&2%=3#:&"1-&2$1$-
28/:&0%:+:(&D:/"!$&8&0%:/%-+"3-!-&%$/"!-&-3&.&
zadnjim robom rezila vodoravno na levo stran
3"80%$*3-/$2:&'1"2:L&0%-&*:!&0"&2:8&;"8&4%+-!$&
roke nad svojo glavo in pred njo.
C./B"/4A(0(+6*'%B($+46'.
9'$%3#-& >4"%:HL& /-& -.="#"& -.& 2%=3#:& 0%:+:L&
>8!:%#:3&P%$3*"13$&2&3"80%$*3-/$2$&'1"2$&"1-&
0%8-(&D:/"!$&.&2%="&-3&.&."43#-!&%$B$!&%:.-1"&
3"& 3$*%"3#$& 01"*& 3"80%$*3-/$2:'"& !:;"(& K"-
80%$*3-/$2&!:;&2:43$&2:+:!$&.&!$;3-!&4:-
1$!&%:.-1"&-3&'"&*"/$&0%:>8!:%-!$L&-8*$;"83$&
0"&8:/"!$L&%:+:!$&"1-&B$4:!$&2&$4/%-*$&*"%;$&
ob njegovem rezilu.
C./'BD'"/4A(0(D'='&*3B($+46'.
9'$%3#-&>4"%:H&8&/$3-H$&%:.-1"L&/-&-.="#"&-.&
2%=3#:&0%:+:L&>8!:%#:3&2&3"80%$*3-/$2$&'1"2$&
"1-& 0%8-(& D:/"!$& .& %$/"!-L& 42-'3#:3-!-& 3"4&
svojo glavo in pred njo.
-.'+&9*2(3&(9)%$2'&#'(5.323*:6
»…vor noch swach stark Indes an den selben
wörtern leit alle kunst meister lichtnawers Und
sint dy gruntfeste und der kern alles fechtens
F+B&;BEE3&"83%&F+B&%$EE3&I1$E&"83%&*2&:"%2oEF:3.«
mA%:#L&0$*:!L&I-B"/L&!$;"3L&2&*:!&_&*:&B:8:-
4:& 2$4-#$& 28$& 2:I;-3$& !$#8*%"& y-&F%$EE&x5]3%3y-&EdB*2'*2O&xNF:*13%y-&
]*':&':3&EF"1>&E'%*,3&xNF:3*'13%3y.z 4
Czornhaw – ‘wrathful strike’
/&E'%*,3&83"1'&;%$6&l':3&%$$;&OB"%8f&"I$@3&':3&%*O:'&
E:$B183%-&BEB"11C&8*%3F'38&'$]"%8E&':3&$>>$232'E&B>per
left side.
Krumphaw – ‘crooked strike’
/& E'%*,3& 83"1'& ;%$6& "I$@3& ':3& %*O:'& E:$B183%-&
directed from the side towards the blade of the opponent’s
sword or his hands. The strikes are made
]*':&F%$EE38&:"28E-&]*':&':3&;%$2'&$%&I"F,&E*83&$;&':3&
blade’s edge.
Twerchaw – ‘horizontal strike’
/&E'%*,3&;%$6&"I$@3-&83"1'&;%$6&l':3&%$$;&OB"%8f&$%&
':3&l$a&OB"%8f.&5:3&E'%*,3E&"%3&>3%;$%638&]*':&F%$EE38&
:"28E&"28&':3&I"F,&38O3&$;&':3&I1"83&:$%*+$2'"11C&'$&
the left side of the enemy’s head while you keep your
hand above and in front of your head.
Schilhaw – ‘squinting strike’
/&E'%*,3&83"1'&;%$6&':3&l%$$;&OB"%8f&"28&8*%3F'38&
frontally towards the opponent’s head or chest. The
strike is made from above and with the back-side
edge of the blade towards the inner side of the opponent’s
sword. The opponent’s sword is always in
"&I*28&]*':&':3&E'%$2O3%&>"%'&$;&':3&I1"83&"28&F"2-&
':BE-& I3& %38*%3F'38.& N*6B1'"23$BE1C-& C$B& F"2& E'%*,3&
FB'-& E1*F3& $%& ':%BE'& *2'$& ':3& B2F$@3%38& '"%O3'& "1$2O&
his blade.
Scheitelhaw –scalp strike
An upper strike with the point of the blade dealt
;%$6& ':3& l%$$;& OB"%8f-& 8*%3F'38& '$]"%8E& ':3& $>>$nent’s
head or chest. Strikes are made with the hands
raised above and in front of one’s head.
Advantage and feeling of pressure
“…vor noch swach stark Indes an den selben
wörtern leit alle kunst meister lichtnawers Und sint
8C&O%B2';3E'3&B28&83%&,3%2&"113E&;3F:'32E&F+B&;BEE3&
"83%&F+B&%$EE3&I1$E&"83%&*2&:"%2oEF:3.z&
Ñ)3;$%3&xG$%y-&/;'3%&xM"F:y-&j3",&xj3*F:y-&N'%$2O&
xb"%'y-& *2& ':"'& *2E'"2'T#BE'& "E& xW283Ey.& _2& ':3E3&
]$%8E&:*2O3&':3&]:$13&"%'&$;&D*3F:'32"B3%-&"28&':3C&
are the foundation and corner stone of all fencing
4 MS 3227a, fol. 23r.
M I L I T A R Y H I S T O R Y ! 67

-3&8$&*:!:1#&-3&#:4%$&B$#:2"3#"&0:I&"1-&3"&/$3#>L&
brez oklepa ali z njim.« 5
»Prej« (vor)L&m0$*:!n&7nach) in »v tem« (indes)&
8$& 0$& 4$L& *$%:#& 3"0"4"*-L& B-*-& *-8*-L& /-& 3"%:/>#:&
0$*:/&B$#"L&3"80%$*3-/&0"&8:&!$%"&B%"3-*-L&/"%&
0$!:3-L&4"&#:&2&."$8*"3/>L&m0$*:!n(&^:&8:&.'$-
4-L&4"&*:&3"80%$*3-/&0%:=-*-&-3&8:&8"!&.3"#4:I&
2&."$8*"3/>L&!$%"I&m2&*:!n&7indes?&>'$*$2-*-L&
/"/$&3"0%:#L&4"&B$I&.3$2"&0%:2.:1&0$B>4$&-3&
0%-I:1&2&0%:43$8*(&m@&*:!n&0$!:3-L&4"&8:&!$%"I&
2&=-0>L&/$&8:&!:;"&.3"#4:*"&2&2:."2-L&$41$;-*-L&
/"*:%$&0$*:.$&B$I&-.B%"1(&K"&0$41"'-&*:'"L&"1-&
!$;3-&7stark?&4:1&*2$#:'"&!:;"&2:+:&I-B/-&7swach)
del njegovega ali obratno in pa na podla-
'-&;>*:3#"&7fühlen)L ali je nasprotnikov pritisk
3"& *2$#& !:;& !$;"3& 7stark) ali šibak (swach?L&
!$%"I&0%:8$4-*-L&/"*:%-&0$8*$0:/&B$I&>0$%"B-1L&
4"&B$I&1"=/$&.3$2"&3"0"4:1&-3&0%:I:1&2&m0%:4-
3$8*nL&/#:%&-!"I&2:;&!$+3$8*-&."&>80:=(&9&!$;-
3-!&4:1$!&82$#:'"&!:;"&#:&!$'$;:&_&2&2:."2-&
s šibkim delom nasprotnikovega – nadzorovati
3#:'$2&!:;(&D&I-B/-!&4:1$!&*$&3-&!$'$;:L&1"=-
/$&0"&8:&>0$%"B-&4%>':L&0%"2&*"/$&>;-3/$2-*:&
postopke. Prav tako je od jakosti pritiska na-
80%$*3-/$2:'"&!:;"&3"&*2$#:'"&$42-83$L&/"*:-
%:&0$8*$0/:&#:&2&4$1$;:3:!&0$1$+"#>&3"#B$1#:&
>0$%"B-*-(& 9"*$& 0"L& 4"& $8*"3:I& 2& 0%:43$8*-& -3&
$B4%+-I&0$B>4$&2&B$#>L&#:&.:1$&0$!:!B3$&*>4-L&
4"& 3"4"1#>#:I& 3"0"4:L& *"/$#& /$& 8:& 3"80%$*3-/&
$B%"3-&:3:'"&$4&3#-=(&5$&0$!:3-L&4"&3:&8!:I&
2.*%"#"*-& 0%-& -8*:!& 3"0"4>L& *:!2:;& !$%"I& ."-
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!$%"I&$41$;-*-&m2&*:!nL&=-03$L&2&*%:3>*/>L&/$&
>'$*$2-IL&4"&8:&#:&*2$#&3"0"4&-.#"1$2-1(
6"/$&2:1-/&0$!:3&8$&& -3& $=%"3#"3#>&
0$B>4:& *:%& ;>*:3#>& 0%-*-8/"& %:.-1L& 1"=/$& 8/1:-
0"!$& +:& -.& $B8:+3$8*-& $B%"23"2"3#"& *:& *:!:&
2&/$4:/8>&)D&eVVk"(&M4&8:4:!-3I*-%-4:8:*-=&
8*%"3-L&/-&$B%"23"2"#$&B$#:2"3#:&.&4$1'-!&!:-
;:!&0$&$28&'$&"F'*$2E-&':"'&*E&*2&':3&l";'3%f.&W2&':3&
case that the opponent forruns you and you have to
%3E>$28-&C$B&:"@3&'$&;*28&$B'&l*2&':"'&*2E'"2'f&9*2des)
how to regain the lead and to gain advantage
over the opponent. At the instant of contact with the
$>>$232'fE& I1"83-& C$B& :"@3& '$& 83F*83& ]:*F:& 6$@3&
you are going to make next. Based on whether the
strong (stark) part of your sword is in the bind with
':3& ]3",& 9E]"F:=& >"%'& $;& C$B%& $>>$232'fE& E]$%8-&
$%&':3&$>>$E*'3-&"28&I"E38&$2&':3&;331*2O&9;o:132=-&
according to which you immediately sense that the
opponent’s pressure on your sword is strong (stark)
$%&]3",&9E]"F:=-&C$B&:"@3&'$&3E'*6"'3&]:*F:&'3F:nique
you are going to apply in order to be able to
"''"F,&"O"*2&"28&%3O"*2&"8@"2'"O3-&O*@*2O&C$B&$>portunity
to achieve success. With the strong past of
your sword it is possible – in the bind with a weak
part of the opponent’s sword – to control his sword.
5:*E& *E& 2$'& >$EE*I13& ]*':& "& ]3",& >"%'.& g3'-& $':3%&
equally efficient techniques can be employed. Which
techniques are best to be used in a certain posture
depends on the strength of the pressure of your op-
>$232'fE&E]$%8&$2&C$B%&E]$%8.&5:3%3;$%3-&*2&$%83%&
to remain in control of the engagement and main-
'"*2&':3&*2*'*"'*@3-&*'&*E&@3%C&*6>$%'"2'&'$&F$2'*2B3&
the attacks as soon as your opponent defends one
of them. This means that you should not insist on
BE*2O&':3&E"63&"''"F,-&IB'&C$B&:"@3&'$&E'"%'&"&23]&
$23& ;%$6& "& 8*;;3%32'& 8*%3F'*$2.& "O3E&':"'&8*EFBEE&
1$2OE]$%8&F$6I"'&"FF$%8*2O&'$&D*3F:'32"B3%-&6$%3&
than six pages have been dedicated to this topic by
Döbringer.
5 MS 3227a, fol. 20r.

G$%E3'F+32&_&$42%";"3#:
Nochreisen – sledenje
Überlawfen&_&0%:=-*:2"3#:
/I3E3'F+32 – protinapad s preusmerjanjem
Durchwechseln – zamenjava strani
0+BF,32 – poteg nazaj
Durchlawfen – prodor
Abeschneiden&_&%:."3#:&0$&%$/"=
Hende drücken – odrivanje rok (z dvojnim
rezom)
Hengen&_&2-8:3#:&7B$#:2"3#:&.&!:;:!&2&2-8:-
;:!&0$1$+"#>?
Winden&_&."2-#"3#:&3"&!:;>&"1-&."2-#"3#:&
v vezavi.
!"#$%&'$()&"&'"(*+,&-$.+,&/&0"'$012&34&
3227a
/>& -.0$4& 0:%:8"&
OyB%-3':%#"&81:4-&I:&:3"#8*&8*%"3-L&/"*:%-=&"2-
*$%#-& 8$& 8"!& l"3/$& OyB%-3':%L& E34%:"8& f>4L&
Jost von der Neissen in Niklas Preussen. Za-
3-!-2$&#:L&4"&8$&3"&*:=&8*%"3:=&*>4-&3"2$4-1"L&
/"/$&%"23"*-L&;:&*:&3"&0$*-&3"0"4:&2:;&3"80%$-
*3-/$2L& ;:8"%& 2& 4%>'-=& 3:!I/-=& 0%-%$;3-/-=&
8/$%"#4"&3-L&8"#&8$&B-1-L&/$*&8:!&+:&$!:3-1L&3"-
!:3#:3-&0%:428:!&>;:3#>&0$8*$0/$2&2&P$%!"1-
3-=&42$B$#-=(&@&3"4"1#:2"3#>&0"&#:&$0-8"3-=&I:&
$8:!&0$8*$0/$2L&/-&0$&OyB%-3':%#:2-=&B:8:4"=&
8$4-#$& /& & 2:4-L& 4"& -.0>I;"!& 2:1-/$& !$#8*%8/-=&
0$8*$0/$2L& /:%& #-=& 1"=/$& 3"#4:I& 0$4%$B3$& -3&
0%"2-13$&$0-8"3:&2&:%& 3:& >0$%"B1#"L& 4%>':& 8$& -!:3$-
2"3:&4%>'";:(&5"/$&Alber&_&3$%;:2$&0%:+$&*>&
6 MS 3227a, fol. 44r.
Techniques
5:3& F$83a& !N& cUUm& F$2'*2B3E& ]*':& "& 83EF%*>-
'*$2& $;& I"E*F& '3F:2*dB3E& ]:*F:& "%3-& "FF$%8*2O& '$&
D*3F:'32"B3%-&23F3EE"%C&'$&I3&BE38&*2&F$6I"'L&
G$%E3'F+32&h&8*E>1"F*2O
Nochreisen – travelling afteror attacing after
Überlawfen –overrunning
/I3E3'F+32&h&83;13F'*2O&]:*13&F$B2'3%&"''"F,*2O
Durchwechseln – changing through
0+BF,32&h&']*'F:*2O
Durchlawfen – running throught
Abschneiden – slicing off (hands)
Hende drücken – pressing hands
Hengen – hanging (fighting in a hanging position)
Winden – winding.
Conclusion on the section on longswords in
codex MS 3227a
D*3F:'32"B3%fE& '3"F:*2OE-& %3F$%838& IC& b"2,$&
4qI%*2O3%-&"%3&;$11$]38&IC&313@32&>"O3E&]%*''32&IC&
4qI%*2O3%&:*6E31;-&/28%3"E&eB8-&e$E'&@$2&83%&M3*EE32&
and Niklas Preussen. It is an interesting fact that
these pages include also instructions on how to re-
"F'&*;-&$2&C$B%&]"C-&C$B&"%3&"''"F,38&IC&E3@3%"1&$>-
>$232'E-& ]:*F:& F"22$'& I3& ;$B28& *2& $':3%& 6"2B"1E.&
5:3E3&]3%3-&"E&:"8&I332&"1%3"8C&632'*$238-&>%*6"rily
intended for learning techniques in formal duels.
The manuscript continues with a description of eight
'3F:2*dB3E-&]:*F:&Z&"FF$%8*2O&'$&4qI%*2O3%&Z&"%3&>"%'&
$;& D*3F:'32"B3%fE& '3"F:*2OE-& C3'& F"22$'& I3& '%"F38&
elsewhere:
Ñb*3&63%,3&B28&]*EE3&T&8"E&*F:&@*1&83E3%&63*E'3%O3-
;3F:'3&B283%]3O32&1"EE3&T&8$%B6I3&8"+&6"2&E*3&O"%&
T&B28&"BF:&O3%3F:'&T&C2&1*F:'2"]3%E&,B2E'&B28&;3F:-
'32&T&@$%&:"'&T&2$F:&]$%:";'*O3%&,B2E'&T&4$F:&8B-
%F:&oIB2O3&B28&EF:B1;3F:'32E&]*113&T&]*1&*F:&3'+1*F:3&
E'$F,3&B28&O3E3'+3&*:%3E&O3;3F:'32E&T&6*'&E13F:'3%&B28&
,$%F+3%&%3832&EF:%3*I32Üz&
“Here take note that I have decided to leave out
several of the master techniques since they are well
83EF%*I38& x3"%1*3%y& *2& ':3& "%'& $;& D*3F:'32"B3%-& "28&
that is a true art. But for practice and school fencing
I want to describe a few easy techniques by some
short and simple rules.” 6
W2& ':3E3& 3*O:'& 3a"6>13E-& OB"%8E& "%3& 632'*$238&
9;$%&3a"6>13&NF:%"2,:B'3&h&lI"%%*3%&OB"%8f=-&]:*F:&
]3%3& 2$'& BE38& IC& D*3F:'32"B3%-& ]:3%3"E& $':3%E& "%3&
2"638&8*;;3%32'1C.&5:BE-&/1I3%&h&':3&l;$$1fE&OB"%8f&*E&
%3;3%%38&'$&"E&;$%'32&h&*%$2&O"'3E-&E*6*1"%&
6 MS 3227a, fol. 44r.
M I L I T A R Y H I S T O R Y ! 69

imenujejo Eyserynen pforten& _& +:1:.3"&
2%"*"L&*"/$&/$*&2&X*"1-#-&7>$%'"&8*&;3%%$&63+-
+"2"L&!$'$;:&0"&#:&*>4-L&4"&'%:&."&-*"1-jansko
tutta porta di ferroL& 0%-& /"*:%-& #:&
/$3-H"& !:;"& >8!:%#:3"& 0%$*-&
*1$!& 3"& 4:83-& 8*%"3-b& 2& *:!&
primeru bi bil namen te pre-
+:&0$4$B:3&3"!:3>&."0$%3:&
0%:+:?( Poleg tega so opisani
0$8*$0/-& .& -!:3-L& /$*& 8$& H;$I32F+"O32L
7%"B':"F,32L& M$'3%F+B2O3& -*3(L& /-& #-=& 2&
4%>'-=& 0%-%$;3-/-=& 3-(& @:34"%& #:& 3";-3&
%".!-I1#"3#"L&/-&#:&%".2-4:3&-.&*:=&$0-8$2L&
0$0$13$!"& 2& 8/1"4>& .& /&.:1$&.'$4"#&.";:1-&80%:!-3#"*-&$.-%$-
!"&%".2-#"*-&+:&3#:'$2-&3:0$8%:43-&>;:3-
H-(&5"&%".2$#&8:&#:&3"4"1#:2"1&I:&0%-=$43#-=&
42:8*$& 1:*L& 2:34"%& 8:& $83$23-& 0%-3H-0-L&
/-&#-=&#:&.";%*"1&&,"10$,
Fechtbuch Sigmunda Ringecka je sesta-
21#:3&-.&RVZ&%$/$0-83-=&1-8*$2L&2:34"%&#:&VV&
8*%"3-&0%".3-=(&K"&.";:*/>&82$#-=&/$!:3tarjev
Ringeck sebe imenuje schirmeistra
$.-%$!"&B$%-13:'"&>;-*:1#"&3"&42$%>&/3:."&
E1B%:=*"L& %:38/:'"& 0"1"*-3"& -3& B"2"%8/:-
'"&2$#2$4:(&K"#2:%#:*3:#:&'%:&."&E1B%:=*"&
XXX(& 7R\TR_ST?L& /-& #:& B-1& $4& 1:*"& R\eZ& B"varski
vojvoda. Fechtbuch Petra von Dan-
.-'"& -.& 1:*"& R\YV& *:!:1#-& 3"& C-3':H/$2:!&
B:8:4-1>L 7 & -.& ;:8"%& 1"=/$& 8/1:0"!$L& 4"& '"&
#:&C-3':H/&3"0-8"1&3"&.";:*/>&I*-%-4:8:*-=&
let 15. stoletja. Kdaj konkretno je nastala
/$0-#"L&/-&#$&=%"3-#$&2&O%:843>L&3-&.3"3$L&
vendar gre prav gotovo za prepis. Nekateri
%".-8/$2"1H-&H:1$&!:3-#$L&4"&#:&4:1$&42:=&0--
8H:2L&2:34"%&%".1-/:&2&%$/$0-8>&3-8:!&."81:-
4-1(&O"&'%:&."&0%:0-8L&#:&%".2-43$&-.&4:#8*2"L&
4"&8$&4$1$;:3-&4:1-&B:8:4-1"&0$!:I"3-&!:4&
8:B$#L&.:1$&2:%#:*3$&0"&#:&2"3#&28*"21#:3$&*>4-&
besedilo drugega avtorja (ali pa vsaj iz nekega
:" 7/)/8"&2'"H%'W,E9"M2+."TT"U"S"_M2+."@TTAb"@T!Q9";,D$,2)/=%"+/$$oU==%+/0,%"'%W,2nale
dei Lincei e Corsiniana, Roma. Transkripcija Grzegorza Zabinskega in Stefana
Diekeja je dostopna na spletni strani http://www.freifechter.org (obiskano 19. 11.
2008).
70 ! V O J A Š K A Z G O D O V I N A
'$&':3&W'"1*"2&3a>%3EE*$2&9>$%'"&8*&;3%%$&63++"2"&
or it might also be the Italian expression tutta
>$%'"&8*&;3%%$-&]:3%3&':3&>$*2'&$;&':3&E]$%8&*E&
aiming towards the ground at the right side.
The purpose of this guard is similar
to the purpose of the barrier
OB"%8.=& /88*'*$2"11C-& ':3%3& "%3&
83EF%*>'*$2E& $;& '3F:2*dB3E-& EBF:&
"E& H;$I32F+"O32-& 7%"B':"F,32-&
M$'3%F+B2O3& 3'F.& ':"'& 8$& 2$'& $FFB%& *2& $':3%&
6"2B"1E.&g3'-&':3E3&F$2E*83%"'*$2E-&]:*F:&"%3&
3@*832'&;%$6&':3E3&83EF%*>'*$2E-&"%3&*2&"IE$1B'3&
accordance with Liechtenauer’s doctrine. There
are also certain attack techniques that are used
and that belong to Liechtenauer’s five types of
E'%*,3E.&W'&F"2-&':3%3;$%3-&I3&F$2F1B838-&':"'&':3&
Master’s teachings were early on started to be
modified or expanded by his students. This development
was continued in the following two
:B28%38& C3"%E-& C3'& ':3& I"E*F& >%*2F*>13E& ]:*F:&
were laid down by Liechtenauer never changed
that much so not to be recognised.
Master Sigmund Ringeck’s
Commentaries on Liechtenauer’s Verses
N*O6B28&`*2O3F,fE&P3F:'IBF:&F$2E*E'E&$;&QUY&
;$1*"& ]*':& UU& $;& ':36& 36>'C.& `*2O3F,& *E& 632tioned
as schirmaister (fencing master) at the
F$B%'& $;& /1I%3F:'-& ':3& 0$B2'& H"1"'*23& $;& ':3&
`:*23&"28&':3&4B,3&$;&)"@"%*"-&6$E'&>%$I"I1C&
F$%%3E>$28*2O&'$&/1I3%'&WWW&9Q[SQ&h&Q[RS=-&]:$&
carried the title Duke of Bavaria from 1438.
H3'3%&@$2&4"2+*OfE&P3F:'IBF:&$;&Q[XU&8%"]E&$2&
Ringeck’s text 7 -& E$& ':"'& ':3& 6$E'& 1*,31C& 8"'3& $;&
composition of Ringeck’s Fechtbuch is sometime
at the beginning of the 15 th century.
The exact time of when the copy of the manual
>%3E3%@38&*2&4%3E832&]"E&6"83&*E&2$'&,2$]2-&C3'&
it is certain that it is a copy. Some researches
advocate the opinion that the manuscript was
':3&>%$8BF'&$;&']$&]%*'3%E.&b$]3@3%-&W&F$B18&2$'&
perceive any differences in the handwriting. The
fact that it is a copy is evident from the fact that
F3%'"*2&>"%'E&$;&':3&'3a'&"%3&6*a38&B>-&"28&*'&*E&
very likely that a text written by another author
was inserted into it (or that it is a text from another
of Ringeck’s treaties which has not been
preserved). Ringeck’s manual is the first currently
:" 7/)/8"&2'"H%'W,E9"M2+."TT"U"S"_M2+."@TTAb"@T!Q9";,D$,2)/=%"+/$$oU==%+/0,%"'%W,2'ale
dei Lincei e Corsiniana, Roma.

4%>':'"& 3:$=%"3#:3:'"& C-3':H/$2:'"& 4:1"?(&
Ringeckov rokopis je prvi do danes znani pri-
!:%:/&B$%-13:'"&0%-%$;3-/"&/-&-.="#"&3:0$8%:-
43$& -.& >;:3#"& f$="33:8"& & -.& 1:*"& ReZWL& *$%:#& 0$&
4$B%-=&0:*4:8:*-=&1:*-=(
M=%"3#:3"& #:& *>4-& -1>8*%-%"3"& /$0-#"& C-3-
':H/$2:'"&0%-%$;3-/"&-.&1:*"&RYeW( 8 To knjigo
#:& 3"#2:%#:*3:#:& 3"%$;-1& A">1& l:H*$%& )"-%L& ;-gar
rokopis je na prvi strani knjige. Kot eden
$4&!$#8*%$2L&/-&8$&81:4-1-&'"& 0$1$2-H"& RY(& 8*(L&
28:/"/$%&0"&0%:4&1:*$!&R\kW?L&-3&8-H:%&/$*&D--
'!>34&E!%-3'(&
C-3':H/$2$&4:1$&8:&+:&2&0%-8*$0>&.:1$&%".1--
/>#:&$4&4:1"&3#:'$2:'"&0%:4=$43-/"(&OyB%-3-
':%#:2& 0%-8*$0& #:L& /$*& %:;:3$L& B$1#& /$3H:0*>"-
1:3L&C-3':H/&0"&#:&2&82$#-=&/$!:3*"%#-=&-.%".-*$&
0%"/*-;:3(&D2$#:&4:1$&.";3:&.&#:&8&0$4%$B3--
!-& %".1"'"!-& 0$8"!:.3-=& 2:%.$2& -3& 3"!& 72&
nasprotju z Döbringerjem) vsakokrat ponudi
2%8*$&0%"/*-;3-=&0$8*$0/$2L&/-&$82:*1#>#:#$&."-
/%-*$&28:B-3$&!$#8*%$2-=&2:%.$2(&
Knjiga je razdeljena na pet sklopov:
R(&,$#:2"3#:&.&4$1'-!&!:;:!&B%:.&$/1:0"&7P$1(&
e%_Y\%L& 2:34"%& 8/$%"#& 28:& B:8:4-1$& $& 4$1'-&
0%:+-& -3& .";:*:/& 0$'1"2#"& $& /$3H>& >;:3#"&
3"#4:!$&3"&8*%"3:=&RVe%_RVY&2L&0$'1"2#>&$&
B$#>&.&!:;:!&-3&I;-*/$!&0"&81:4-&I:&0$2.:-
*:/&4$1':'"&!:;"&3"&8*%"3:=&YY2_YW2?(
V(&,$#&.&!:;:!&-3&I;-*/$!&7Y\%_YY2?&
3. Rokoborba (66r–86v)
\(&,$#:2"3#:&2&$/1:0>&7ZW%_RTZ%?L&/-&8:&0$&3:nadni
vmesni prekinitvi nadaljuje po poglavju
o bojevanju na konju. Po peti vrstici
3"&8*%(&RTR%L&0$&mdie ander hutt mitt dem kur-
'+32&EF:]3%'&+B&,"6>;;}&74%>'-&0%:+-&2&B$#>&8&
0%:0%-#:*-!&!:;:!?&-3&main bruch wider das
8B%F:E3'+32}& (obrambi pred bodenjem) se
izvirno besedilo nadaljuje +&|W'36&8B&@*283E'&
och hernach geschriben wie du vs der drytten
hut die schlag die man schlächt mitt dem
,2$>;;& @3%E3'+32& E$11'}& (tu najdeš zapisano
*>4-L&/"/$&-.&*%:*#:&0%:+:&.&'1"2-;:!&$42%neš
nasprotnikov napad) in z »die vierd hutt
6*''&836&,B%'+32&EF:]3%'&+B&,"6>;;}&7;:*%*$&
8 Sigmund Schninig, Cod. I.6.20.5, Universitätsbibliothek, Augsburg.
known example of a martial arts manual after the
Mo%2I3%O3%& b"28EF:%*;'& $;& QcYV& ]:*F:& *E& 8*%3F'1C&
I"E38&$2&D*3F:'32"B3%fE&'3"F:*2OE-&':BE-&]%*''32&;*;'C&
years later.
An illustrated copy of Ringeck’s manuscript dat-
*2O&"%$B28&QXcV&*E&"1E$&>%3E3%@38. 8 This copy might
:"@3&I332&F$66*EE*$238&IC&H"B1&b3F'$%&!"*%-&]:$E3&
handwriting appears on the first page. As a mem-
I3%&$;&':3&N$F*3'C&$;&D*3F:'32"B3%-&N*O6B28&*E&"1E$&
632'*$238&*2&':3&6"2B"1&$;&H"B1&7"1&9E3F$28&:"1;&$;&
the 15 th &F32'B%C-&6$E'&1*,31C&I3;$%3&Q[mV=-&2"631C&"E&
Sigmund Amring.
`*2O3F,fE& 6"2B"1& 8*;;3%E& @3%C& 6BF:-& 3@32& *2& *'E&
">>%$"F:-&;%$6&':3&6"2B"1&]%*''32&IC&:*E&>%383F3E-
E$%.& /E& *'& :"E& "1%3"8C& I332& 632'*$238-& 4qI%*2O3%fE&
">>%$"F:& *E& $;& "& 6$%3& F$2F3>'B"1& 2"'B%3-& ]:3%3"E&
Ringeck was very practical in his commentaries. He
begins with Liechtenauer’s verses which resemble
very much those that can be found in Döbringer’s
]$%,-&F$2'*2B3E&':32&]*':&83'"*138&3a>1"2"'*$2E&$;&
individual verses and (as distinguished to Döbringer)
$;;3%E&"1]"CE&"&E3%*3E&$;&>%"F'*F"1&>%$F38B%3E-&]:*F:&
explain the hidden meaning of the Master’s verses.
The book is divided into five sections:
1. Fighting with a longsword without armour (fol.
c%hX[%-& :$]3@3%-& "16$E'& ':3& 32'*%3& '3a'& $2& ':3&
“long guard” and the beginning of the chapter
concerning the conclusion of the training are fo-
B28&$2&>"O3E&QUc%hQUX@-&':3&F:">'3%&$2&;*O:'*2O&
with a sword and buckler is followed by a summa-
%C&$2&':3&1$2O&E]$%8-&>>.&XX@hXV@=.
U.&P*O:'*2O&]*':&"&E]$%8&"28&IBF,13%&9X[%hXX@=.&
3. Wrestling (66r–86v).
[.&/;'3%&"&E:$%'&>"BE3-&"%6$B%38&;*O:'*2O&9YV%hQSY%=&
is resumed after the section on fighting on horse-
I"F,.&/;'3%&':3&;*%E'&1*23&$2&>.&QSQ%-&Ñ8*3&"283%&:B''&
6*''&836&,B%'+32&EF:]3%'&+B&,"6>;;z&9':3&$':3%&
strikes with the half-sword) and “ain bruch wi-
83%&8"E&8B%F:E3'+32z&983;32F3&"O"*2E'&E'"II*2O=-&
the original text continues with “Item du vindest
och hernach geschriben wie du vs der drytten hut
die schlag die man schlächt mitt dem knopff ver-
E3'+32&E$11'z&9"28&:3%3&C$B&;*28&:$]&'$&8*E>1"F3&
the opponent’s attack from the third guard) and
]*':&Ñ8*3&@*3%8&:B''&6*''&836&,B%'+32&EF:]3%'&+B&
kampff” (the fourth guard in the fighting with the
:"1;ZE]$%8=.& b32F3-& ':3& F$2'*2B"'*$2& $;& ':3& '3a'&
on fighting from the second guard with a halfswordand
the text on the third guard when fighting
with a half-sword is omitted. This text can
8 Sigmund Schninig, Cod. I.6.20.5, Universitätsbibliothek, Augsburg.
M I L I T A R Y H I S T O R Y ! 71

0%:+$&2&B$#>&8&0%:0%-#:*-!&!:;:!?(&X.0>I;:no
je torej nadaljevanje besedila o boju iz
4%>':&0%:+:&8&0%:0%-#:*-!&!:;:!&-3&B:8:4--
1$&$&*%:*#-&0%:+-&2&B$#>&8&0%:0%-#:*-!&!:;:!L&
/-&'"&2&%$/$0-8>&3"#4:!$&3"&8*%"3:=&RVV%_
RVe%&0$&B$#>&.&!:;:!&3"&/$3#>(&
Y(&,$#:2"3#:&2&$/1:0>&3"&/$3#>&7RTW%_RVR2?
;9#':%#:2-=& MerkversenL& 0$*:!& 0"& /$mentira
posamezne verze. V uvodu se dosle-
43$& 4%+-& 0$%"B$&1:&
I*-%-=&&>2:4:&3$2$&_&Zornhut&_&0%:+$&-.."&=%B-
*"L& -.& /"*:%:& #:& *%:B"& 8:/"*-& 8 Zornhauom. V
$B4$B#>L&/$&8$&3"0-8"1-&)D&eVVk"L&8$&3"!%:;&
s Zornhauom 8:/"1-& -.& 2%=3#:& 0%:+:(& A%:+"&
-.."&=%B*"&8:&$4&2%=3#:&%".1-/>#:&0$&*:!L&4"&
!:;"& 3:& 4%+-!$& 2:;& 42-'3#:3:'"& 3"4& 4:83$&
%"!$L&*:!2:;&0>8*-!$L&4"&3#:'$2$&%:.-1$&2-8-&
0%:/&3#:&."&3"I-!&=%B*$!&8&/$3-H$&3"2.4$1(&D&
*:!&0$&:3-&8*%"3-&3"80%$*3-/>&4"#:!$&2*-8L&4"&
8!$&$4/%-*-L&-3&'"&8&*:!&2"B-!$L&4"&3"0"4:L&
0$&4%>'-&0"&#:&>4"%:H&-.."&=%B*"&*:%&8&*:!&3"I&
$4'$2$%&3"&3"0"4&2:1-/$&!$;3:#I-&/$*&>4"%:H&
-.& 2%=3#:& 0%:+:(& @& ."/1#>;3:!& 4:1>& 8/1$0"& $&
B$#:2"3#>&.&4$1'-!&!:;:!&C-3':H/&0%-0$%$;"&
I:&42:&4%>'-&0%:+-L&/-&#-=&'&E*2&E$&
,$6632&8$F:&8*3&E'BF,&@E{&83%&+3831&8*3&6"2&
daruß vichtet.«
& m6"/$%& /$1-& +:& 7/"%& 81:4-& _& $0(& 0%:2(?& 3-&
$!:3#:3$&2&>;:3#>L&28-&0$8*$0/-L&/-&#-=&>0$%"-
B1#"!$&2&!:;:2"3#>L&-.="#"#$&-.&3#:'"(n W
X3&+:&8!$&0%-&3"81:43#-&C-3':H/$2-&3:4$81:-
43$8*-L&8"#&2&-8*-&8"0-&0%"2-L&4"&!$%"!$&8*%"3-
8/$& 0%:+$& >0$%"B1#"*-& 3"& 1:2-& 8*%"3-L& /"%& #:& 2&
0$0$13:!&3"80%$*#>&.&-
/$!L&/-&-.%:H3$&$482:*>#:&3"0"4:&.&1:2:&8*%"3-L&
;:&8:2:4"&3-8!$&1:2-;"%#-(&K:/"*:%-&0%:>;:2"1H-&
8%:43#:2:I/:'"&!:;:2"3#"&!:3-#$L&4"&C-3':H/&
9 Mscr. Dresd. C 487, fol. 49r.
72 ! V O J A Š K A Z G O D O V I N A
I3&;$B28&*2&':3&6"2BEF%*>'&$2&>"O3E&QUU%hQUc%-&
after fighting with a sword on horseback.
X.&!$B2'38&;*O:'*2O&*2&"%6$B%&9QSV%hQUQ@=.
Fighting with a longsword
Ringeck’s manuscript opens with the quotation
;%$6& D*3F:'32"B3%fE& !3%,@3%E32& 9@3%E3E=-& "28& F$2tinues
with an interpretation of its verses. In this
*2'%$8BF'*$2-&`*2O3F,&E'%*F'1C&;$11$]E&D*3F:'32"B3%fE&
'3"F:*2OE-&"E&]3&,2$]&':36&;%$6&4qI%*2O3%fE&'%3"-
'*3E.& g3'-& 83E>*'3& ':"'& :3& "8@$F"'3E& ':3& BE3& $;& $21C&
;$B%&D*3F:'32"B3%fE&OB"%8E-&:3&*2'%$8BF3E-&"'&':3&@3%C&
I3O*22*2O-&"&23]&OB"%8&h&':3&?$%2:B'&h&':3&OB"%8&
l;%$6& I3:*28& ':3& I"F,f-& ;%$6& ]:*F:& "& E'%*,3& ]*':&
':3&?$%2:"B&:"E&'$&I3&6"83.&/'&':3&'*63E-&]:32&!N&
cUUm"&]"E&]%*''32-&':3&?$%2:"B&]"E&BEB"11C&O323%-
"'38&;%$6&':3&l%$$;&OB"%8f.&5:3&OB"%8&l;%$6&I3:*28&
':3& I"F,f& 8*;;3%E& *2& "E& 6BF:& ;%$6& ':3& l%$$;& OB"%8f&
':"'&':3&E]$%8&*E&2$'&:318&"I$@3&':3&%*O:'&E:$B183%-&
but that its blade is held hanging from the shoul-
83%-&I3:*28&$23fE&I"F,&]*':&':3&>$*2'&8*%3F'38&8$]2-
]"%8E.& 5:BE-& ':3& $>>$232'& 6"C& ':*2,& ':"'& $23& *E&
B2F$@3%38& "28-& :32F3-& *2@*'*2O& :*6& '$& "''"F,.& _2&
':3&$':3%&:"28-&*'&*E&"&E'%*,3&;%$6&I3:*28&"28-&':BE-&
one’s response to the attack is much stronger than
the strike from the roof guard. In conclusion to the
>"%'& $2& ;*O:'*2O& ]*':& ':3& 1$2OE]$%8-& `*2O3F,& EBO-
O3E'E& ']$& 8*;;3%32'& OB"%8E-& ]:*F:& D*3F:'32"B3%& 8*8&
2$'&F$2E*83%.&5:3E3&']$&OB"%8E&"%3&':3&lF1$E3&OB"%8f&
9M3I32:B'=& "28& ':3& lI"%%*3%& OB"%8f& 9NF:%"2,:B'=-&
]:*F:&:"E&"1%3"8C&I332&632'*$238&*2&':3&!N&cUUm".&
/E&EBOO3E'38&IC&`*2O3F,-&':3&63':$8&$;&':3E3&313-
632'E-&]:*F:&]3%3&2$'&>"%'&$;&D*3F:'32"B3%fE&'3"F:-
*2OE-& *E& "IE$1B'31C& *2& "FF$%8"2F3& ]*':& ':3& !"E'3%fE&
doctrine:
Ñj*3&]$1&EC&*2&83%&+3831&2*F'&I32"6>'&E*2&E$&,$6-
632& 8$F:& 8*3& E'BF,& @E{& 83%& +3831& 8*3& 6"2& 8"%B{&
vichtet.”
&Ñ/1':$BO:&*'&*E&2$'&632'*$238&*2&':3&'3"F:*2OE-&"11&
techniques that are used originate from it.” V
The second inconsistency that can be found in
Ringeck’s transcription is that he states that the close
OB"%8&:"E&'$&I3&BE38&"'&':3&13;'&E*83-&]:*F:&*E&*2&"IE$lute
contrast to Liechtenauer’s teachings that explicitly
dissuades from employing attacks from the left
E*83-&B213EE&$23&*E&13;'Z:"2838.&N$63&%3E3"%F:3%E&$;&
medieval fencing techniques are of the opinion that
Ringeck recommends the attack from the left guard
so as to mislead the opponent. They came to this idea
based on his words: “from the side guard – that is
9 Mscr. Dresd. C 487, fol. 49r.

9";:*:/&B:8:4-1"&2&0%-%$;3-/>&D-'!>34"&C-3':H/"&7R\\T_\Y?
0%-0$%$;"&3"0"4&-.&1:2:&8*%"38/:&0%:+:&."*$L&4"&
B-&."2:4:1&3"80%$*3-/"(&K"&*$&!-8:1&8$&#-=&3"-
0:1#"1:&3#:'$2:&B:8:4:J&m-.&8*%"38/:&0%:+:&_&*$&
#:&-.&>4"%H"&_&2&B$#n&-3&m4$B%$&!:;:2"3#:&-.="ja
iz udarca«. 10 &5"/$&3"#&B-&0$&3#-=$2:!&!3:-
3#>&."2:8*3$&."2:41-&3"80%$*3-/"L&/-&8*$#-&2&:3-&
$4&4:83-=&0%:+L&8&*:!L&4"&B-&I:&4$/"#&4"1:;&$4&
3#:'"&8:/"1-&30%(&.&>4"%H:!&-.."&=%B*"&8&82$#:&
4:83:&8*%"3-&7-3&'"&8:2:4"&.'%:I-1-?&*:%&/$3;"1-&
>4"%:H&2&1:2-&8*%"38/-&0%:+-(&6$&B-&3"80%$*3-/&
3"0"4:1&8&82$#:&4:83:L&B-&$4'$2$%-1-&3"&3#:'$2&
3"0"4&.&>4"%H:!&-.&1:2:&8*%"38/:&0%:+:(&D"!&
8:&8&*$&%".1"'$&3:&8*%-3#"!L&;:0%"2&#:&*$&8-H:%&
10" 78%&")%0.
The beginning of Sigmund Ringeck’s manual (1440–45)
;%$6&':3&E'%*,3&h&*2'$&':3&;*O:'*2Oz-&"28&ÑO$$8&;32Fing
results from the strike”. 10 According to their opin-
*$2-& ':*E& ]$B18& 831*I3%"'31C& 6*E13"8& ':3& $>>$232'&
]:$&*E&E'"28*2O&*2&$23&$;&':3&%*O:'&OB"%8E-&IC&:*''*2O&
the opponent from a relatively great distance with a
strike from behind to one’s right side (and deliberately
missing) and concluding the strike in the left
side guard. When the opponent would attack from
:*E&%*O:'&E*83-&]3&]$B18&':32&%3E>$28&'$&:*E&"''"F,&
]*':&"&E'%*,3&;%$6&':3&13;'&E*83&OB"%8.&H3%E$2"11C-&W&8$&
2$'&"O%33&]*':&':*E-&"1':$BO:&*'&*E&>$EE*I13&'$&F"%%C&
':*E&$B'.&5:*E&'3F:2*dB3&*E&3a'%3631C&%*E,C-&"28&F"2&
be carried out only if the opponent doesn’t attack
10 Ibidem.
M I L I T A R Y H I S T O R Y ! 73

!$'$;:& -.2:8*-(& A$8*$0:/& #:& 3"!%:;& -.#:!3$&
*2:'"3L&8"#&#:&-.2:41#-2&1:L&;:&3"80%$*3-/&3:&3"-
0"4:& *"/$#L& /$& 3"I& !:;& 0%:1:*-& 0%:4& 3#-!& 3"&
4%>'$& 8*%"3(& ^:& 3"0"4:& *"/$#& ."*:!L& 3"8& B$&
."4:1L&I:&0%:4:3&B$!$&1"=/$&$4'$2$%-*-&3"3#(&
9"*$& !:3-!L& 4"& #:& *%:B"& .'$%3#:& C-3':H/$2:&
B:8:4:&%".>!:*-&2&1>;-&8-H:%I3#:'"&;:3#"(&A$&4-&+:&0%$*-3"0"4&"1-&0"&3"!&28"#&."-
'$*"21#"&!$+3$8*&*"/$#I3#:'"&0%$*-3"0"4"L&4"&
torej iz nach preidemo v vorL&*$&0"&#:&!$'$;:&
1:& .& 4-3"!-;3$& $B%"!B$L& *$%:#& .& >4"%H:!(& M&
3:0%"2-13-&$B%"!B-L&*(&#(&$&$42%";"3#>&3"80%$-
*3-/$2:'"&3"0"4"L&/-&3:&0$3>#"&!$+3$8*-&0%$-
*-3"0"4"L&0"&*$1:J
|4"E&*E'&8"E&8B&2*F:'&@3%E3'+32&E$1'&"1E&8*3&O3-
63*232&@3F:'3%&':B2&T&]"22&E*3&@$%E3'+2&E$&:"1-
'322&E*3&*%2&$%'&*2&8*3&:$:3&$83%&"B;&3*2&T&E3*'2&
B228&8"E&*E'&+B@3%E'32&8"E&E*3&*2&83%&@3%E"'+B2O&
6*'&836&T&$%'&2*'&]*EE32&+BEBF:2&8"%B6I&]3%-
832&E*3&$;'&O3EF:1"O322&$83%&T&]32&8B&@3%E3'+2&
]*18-&E$&@3%E3'+&6*'&83*236&:"B&$83%&6*'&83*236&
T&E'*F:&B28&EBF:&*2283E&6*'&836&$%'&8*3&23F:E'&
>1$E&E$&6"O&8*F:&,3*2&T&63CE'3%&$2&E3*2&EF:"82&
geschlagn…«
m5$& 0$!:3-L& 4"& 3:& 8!:I& $42%";"*-L& /$*& *$&
0$;3:#$&$B-;"#3-&781"B-&_&$0(&0%:2(?&!:;:2"1H-(&
6$&$42%3:#$L&4%+-#$&/$3-H$&2-8$/$&"1-&0"&3"&:3-&
8*%"3-(&X3&-.&*:'"&1"=/$&8/1:0"!$L&4"&0%-&$42%"-
;"3#>&3:&2:4$L&/"/$&8&/$3-H$&-8/"*-&73"#B1-+#$&
*"%;$& _& $0(& 0%:2(?L& ."*$& #-=& 0$'$8*$& ."4:3:#$(&
6$&=$;:I&$42%";"*-L&*$%:#&$42%3-&.&>4"%H:!&"1-&
2B$4$!&-3&m2&*:!n&0$-I;-&3"#B1-+#$&*"%;$L&*"/$&
da ti noben mojster ne bo mogel z udarcem
prizadejati škode.« 11
@&.2:.-&8&*:!&#:&."3-!-2$L&4"&#:&/1#>B&*:!>L&
4"&4-&C-3':H/&2:8&;"8&
0$>4"%#"*"&0$!:3&0%:2.:!"3#"&-3&$=%"3#"3#"&
0$B>4:L&2:;-3"&0$8*$0/$2&0%-&4$1':!&!:;>&2&
C-3':H/$2:!&0%-%$;3-/>&4:P:3.-23-=(&@&8/1$-
0>L& 0$82:;:3:!& 4$1':!>& !:;>L& #:& $0-8"3-=&
RTY&%".1-;3-=&0$8*$0/$2(&M4&*:=&#-=&#:&2:;&/$*&
0$1$2-H"&-.%".-*$&4:P:3.-23-=L&0%-&28"#&0$1$2-H-&
0%:$8*"1-=&0"&1"=/$&-.&$0-8"&0$8*$0/$2&8/1:0"-
!$L&4"&#:&3"80%$*3-/&3"0"4:1&0%2-L&4"&#:&*$%:#&
pobuda na njegovi strani.
11" ;28,$',"?8,823',1"Goliath (1510–1520), Biblioteka Jagiellonski, Krakow, Ms. Germ.
Quart. 2020.
74 ! V O J A Š K A Z G O D O V I N A
immediately after our sword is swung in front of him
'$&':3&$':3%&E*83.&W;&:3&8$3E&2$'&"''"F,&*6638*"'31C-&
he will strike us even before we could take action.
W& "6-& ':3%3;$%3-& F$2@*2F38& ':"'& `*2O3F,fE& "I$@3Z
mentioned words have to be understood in light of
D*3F:'32"B3%fE&'3"F:*2OE.&/FF$%8*2O&'$&D*3F:'32"B3%-&
we should never stop attacking the opponent. The
best defence is namely that one which is at the same
time a counter-attack or offers us the possibility of
an immediate counter-attack. That signifies that we
>%$F338&;%$6&':3&2"F:&*2'$&':3&@$%-&]:*F:&*E&$21C&>$E-
E*I13&]*':&"&8C2"6*F&83;32F3-&"&E'%*,3.&5:3&;$11$]*2O&
dB$'3&%3;3%E&'$&':3&*2F$%%3F'&83;32F3-&':3&%3>B1E*$2&$;&
':3&$>>$232'fE&"''"F,-&]:*F:&8$3E&2$'&$;;3%&':3&>$Esibility
of a counter-attack:
Ñ4"E&*E'&8"E&8B&2*F:'&@3%E3'+32&E$1'&"1E&8*3&O363*2-
32&@3F:'3%&':B2&T&]"22&E*3&@$%E3'+2&E$&:"1'322&E*3&
*%2&$%'&*2&8*3&:$:3&$83%&"B;&3*2&T&E3*'2&B228&8"E&*E'&
+B@3%E'32&8"E&E*3&*2&83%&@3%E"'+B2O&6*'&836&T&$%'&2*'&
]*EE32&+BEBF:2&8"%B6I&]3%832&E*3&$;'&O3EF:1"O322&
$83%&T&]32&8B&@3%E3'+2&]*18-&E$&@3%E3'+&6*'&83*236&
:"B&$83%&6*'&83*236&T&E'*F:&B28&EBF:&*2283E&6*'&836&
$%'&8*3&23F:E'&>1$E&E$&6"O&8*F:&,3*2&T&63CE'3%&$2&E3*2&
schadn geschlagn…”
“You should not displace as the common fencer
does. When they displace then they hold their point
:*O:&$%&'$&$23&E*83-&E$&B283%E'"28&':"'&':3C&8$&2$'&
know how to use the point in the displacement to
seek onward and are often hit. Thus when you would
8*E>1"F3-&':32&8*E>1"F3&]*':&C$B%&E'%*,3&$%&]*':&C$B%&
stab and immediately search for the next opening
]*':&':3&>$*2'-&':BE&C$B&]*11&2$'&I3&$@3%'",32&"28&
struck.” 11
W2&F$223F'*$2&]*':&':*E-&*'&*E&*2'3%3E'*2O&':"'&6$E'&
of the longsword techniques in Ringeck’s manual are
83;32E*@3-& "1':$BO:& D*3F:'32"B3%& "28& "1E$& `*2O3F,&
continue to emphasise the meaning of taking and
preserving the initiative. The part on longswords
describes 105 different techniques. Half of them are
explicitly defensive and for the other half we can con-
F1B83-& ;%$6& ':3& 83EF%*>'*$2-& ':"'& ':3& $>>$232'& :"E&
attacked first so that they lead.
How can a system that emphasises the take-over
$;&*2*'*"'*@3&*2F1B83&$21C&"&;3]&$;;32E*@3&'3F:2*dB3EÄ&
W2&;"F'-&':3&*2F$2E*E'32F*3E&*2&':*E&6"2B"1&"%3&">>"%-
32'.&W28338-&D*3F:'32"B3%&"28&`*2O3F,&:"8&E"*8&3@3rything
that was to be said about tactics ensuring the
takeover of the initiative and control of the combat:
11 Fencing manual Goliath (1510–1520), Biblioteka Jagiellonski, Krakow, Ms. Germ.
Quart. 2020.

6"/$&*$L&4"&#:&2&8-8*:!>L&/-&0$>4"%#"&0$!:3&
0%:2.:!"3#"& 0$B>4:L& *"/$& !"1$& $P:3.-23-=&
postopkov? Gre le za navidezno nedoslednost.
@&%:83-H-&8*"&L&/-&3"&>4"%H:&$4'$2"%#"L&2:I;-3"&1:&
malo veselja podarja.« RV
»Vier blossen wisse reme so schlectstu ge-
]CEE3& "2& "113& ;"%& $2& +]*;31& ]*3& 3%& O3I"%& ]*1'&
du dich rechen die vier blossen künstlichen brechen
oben duplier unden recht mutier ich sage
8*%&;o%&]"%&E*F:&EF:o'+'&,"*2&6"2&"2&;"%&:"BE'&
8B& %3F:'& @3%2$6632& +B& EF:1tO3& 6"O& 3%& F1"*2&
kummen…«
mQ*-%-&*"%;:&80$.3"#L&3"3#:&B$I&*$1/:1&8:2:4"L&
3"& 28:& 0$#4-L& 3:& '1:#& 3"& *$L& /"%& 0$;3:(& ^:& 8:&
=$;:I& !"I;:2"*-L& %".B-*-& $B%"!B$& I*-%-=& *"%;J&
0$42É#-& >4"%:H& .'$%"#L& *"%;$& ."!:3#"#& 8& 80$-
43#$b&%:83-;3$&*-&0$2:!J&3-=;:&8:&3:&!$%:&4$1-
'$&B%"3-*-&-3&;:&8-&*$&0%"2-13$&4$#:1L&B$&%:4/$&
prišel do udarca.« 13
|Ü@3113%& +]C;"F:& '%*;;'& 6"2& 832& EF:2*'& 6*'&
6"F:&+]*;"F:&;o%I"EEÜ}
mA%:2"%"#& 42"/%"*L& ."4:3-& !$+"L& 0$*1:#& 0"&
%:+-&I:&42"/%"*&Ñn 14
|G*3%&E*28&@3%E3'+'32&8*3&8*3&13O3%&E3%&13'+'32&
Ü& E3'+& "2& @*3%& 32832& I31CI& 8"%B;;& 13%& ]*1'& 8B&
enden…«
M42%";"3#"L&/-&0%:+:&.:1$&81"B-#$L&8$&I*-%-&Ñ&
3"0"4-&I*-%-&/$3H:L&2.*%"#"#L&;:&8:&+:1-I&3">;-*-L&
/"/$&/$3;"*-(n 15
»… ste frölich besich sein sach schlag nider
8"E&3%&3%EE2"I&]3%&E*F:&@$%&8*%&+oF:'&"I&*F:&E"O3&
8*%&;o%&]"%&E*F:&EF:*'+'&,"*2&6"2&$2&;"%&:"E'B&
3E&@3%2$6632&+B&EF:1"F:32&6"O&3E&F1"*2&,B6men…«
mD*$#&80%$I;:3$L&'1:#L&/"#&0$;3:L&>4"%-L&4"&8:&
$4.$2:(&6$&B$&0%:4&*"B$&0$*:'3-1&0%$;L&0$2:!&
*-&."%:8J&3-=;:&8:&3:&!$%:&4$1'$&B%"3-*-L&;:&8-&*$&
4$#:1L&B$&%:4/$&0%-I:1&4$&>4"%H"(n 16
12 Mscr. Dresd. C 487, fol. 11r.
13 Mscr. Dresd. C 487, fol. 5r.
14 Mscr. Dresd. C 487, fol. 6r.
15 Mscr. Dresd. C 487, fol. 7r–7v.
16 Mscr. Dresd. C 487, fol. 9r.
“Wer nach gät hawen der darff sich kunst wenig
frawen…”
“He who responds to strikes shall not find much
happiness in this skill.” QU
“Vier blossen wisse reme so schlectstu gewysse an
"113&;"%&$2&+]*;31&]*3&3%&O3I"%&]*1'&8B&8*F:&%3F:32&8*3&
vier blossen künstlichen brechen oben duplier unden
%3F:'&6B'*3%&*F:&E"O3&8*%&;o%&]"%&E*F:&EF:o'+'&,"*2&
6"2& "2& ;"%& :"BE'& 8B& %3F:'& @3%2$6632& +B& EF:1tO3&
mag er clain kummen…”
“Get to know four openings that you will strike
;%$6-&8$&2$'&:3E*'"'3-&8$&2$'&I3&B>E3'&IC&]:"'&':3&
opponent does. If you want to break one of the four
$>32*2OE&IC&;$%F3-&':32&l8B>1*3%3f&"'&':3&B>>3%&$>32-
*2O-& "O"*2E'& ':3& N'"%,3& 9E'%$2O=& $;& :*E& E]$%8-& "28&
':32& l6B'*3%3f& '$& "2$':3%& $>32*2O.& /O"*2E'& ':*E-& :3&
cannot defend himself and he will not be able to either
strike or thrust.” 13
ÑÜ@3113%&+]C;"F:&'%*;;'&6"2&832&EF:2*'&6*'&6"F:&
+]*;"F:&;o%I"EEÜj
Ñ43F3*@3&']*F3-&:*'&':3&$>>$232'-&"28&':32&1"BO:&
twice...” 14
ÑG*3%& E*28& @3%E3'+'32& 8*3& 8*3& 13O3%& E3%& 13'+'32& Ü&
E3'+&"2&@*3%&32832&I31CI&8"%B;;&13%&]*1'&8B&32832Ü}&
“There are four displacements that weaken the
OB"%8E&..."''"F,&;$B%&328E-&*2E*E'&*;&C$B&]"2'&'$&13"%2&
how to end.« 15
“… ste frölich besich sein sach schlag nider das er
3%EE2"I&]3%&E*F:&@$%&8*%&+oF:'&"I&*F:&E"O3&8*%&;o%&]"%&
E*F:&EF:*'+'&,"*2&6"2&$2&;"%&:"E'B&3E&@3%2$6632&+B&
schlachen mag es clain kummen…”
ÑN'"28&"'&3"E3-&$IE3%@3&]:"'&:3&*E&8$*2O-&E'%*,3&
and let him respond. When he will withdraw I tell
you: no one will be able to continue to defend. If
C$B&:"@3&B283%E'$$8&':*E-&:3&]*11&E318$6&F$63&'$&"2&
attack.” 16
W2& :*E& F$6632'"%*3E& $2& D*3F:'32"B3%fE& @3%E3E-&
Ringeck offers a variety of techniques that an experienced
fencer may use to defeat his opponent at the
@3%C&I3O*22*2O&$;&':3*%&;*O:'.&b32F3-&D*3F:'32"B3%&"28&
Ringeck recommend to constantly change guards or
to follow and to adequately respond to the opponent’s
guards during the Zufechten – that is approaching
12 Mscr. Dresd. C 487, fol. 11r.
13 Mscr. Dresd. C 487, fol. 5r.
14 Mscr. Dresd. C 487, fol. 6r.
15 Mscr. Dresd. C 487, fol. 7r–7v.
16 Mscr. Dresd. C 487, fol. 9r.
M I L I T A R Y H I S T O R Y ! 75

@& 82$#-=& %".1"'"=& I:3& !:;:2"1:H& +:& 3"& .";:*/>& B$#"&
0%:!"'"&3"80%$*3-/"(&5"/$&8*%:.3$& $4-
'$2"%#"3#:& 3"& 3"80%$*3-/$2:& 0%:+:& ."*$L& /:%&
1"=/$&.&28"/-!&$4&0:*-=&'1"23-=&>4"%H:2&$4-
1$;-!$&B$#&+:L&/$&3"80%$*3-/&I:&8*$#-&2&:3-&$4&
0%:+(&A%"2&*"/$&0"&1"=/$&!:;:2"1:H&.&."!:-
3#"2$&0%:+:&0%:0%:;-&3"80%$*3-/>L&4"&B-&'"&3"-
0"4:1&.&>8*%:.3-!&>4"%H:!(&@:34"%&8:&1"=/$&
.'$4-L&4"&#:&3"80%$*3-/&0%"2&*"/$&-./>I:3&-3&
enako dobro pozna doktrino. V tem primeru
>*:'3:&*>4-&4$B:%&B$#:23-/&=-*%$&-.'>B-*-&0$-
B>4$L&/$&0%-4:&4$&2:."2:&!:;:2L&."*$&#:&C-3-
':H/& 2& 82$#-=& 0$8*$0/-=& 0$>4"%#"1& 0%:428:!&
*$L& /"/$& $4'$2$%-*-& 3"& 3"0"4& *"/$L& 4"& B$!$&
80:*&0%-4$B-1-&0$B>4$L&*(&#(&4"&B$!$&in des –
2&=-0>L&/$&8:&!:;"&0%:/%-+"*"L&-.&nach – zaostanka
prešli v vor&_&0%:43$8*(&9"*$&#:&*$L&/"%&
#:&'1:4:&3"&0%-3H-0:&;:2"3#"&80$.3"1&28:&0"-
8*-L&2&/"*:%:&8:&1"=/$&>#"!:&42$B$#:2"1:HL&-3&#:&
.:1$&4$B%$&2:4:1L&/"/$&0$!:!B3$&#:&3">;-*-&
B$#:23-/"L&4"&8:&.3"&%:I-*-&-.&I:&*"/$&3:!$'$-
;:'"&0$1$+"#"(
A%-&8/1$0>L&/-&$B%"23"2"&B$#&.&4$1'-!&!:-
;:!L& #:&."3-!-2&*>4-&4:1L&/-&8:&.";3:&3"&8*%(&
YY2&80$4"#L&0$&4:1>L&/-&$B%"23"2"&B$#&.&!:;:!&
-3&I;-*/$!(&i%:&3"!%:;&."&4:13-&0$2.:*:/&>;:-
3#"&$&>0$%"B-&4$1':'"&!:;"(&A%-&*:!&B:8:4-1>&
3"#0%:#&$0".-!$&*$L&4"&#:&>!:I;:3$&0$&4:1>L&
/-& $B%"23"2"& B$#:2"3#:& .& :3$%$;3-!& !:;:!&
-3&I;-*/$!L&/"%&#:&+:&8"!$&0$&8:B-&3:1$'-;3$(&
A$1:'&*:'"&8$&."0-8"3-&1:&-.*%'"3-&4:1-&'";3"&$4&*-8*:L&
ki smo je vajeni pri Ringecku. V preostalem
B:8:4-1>&#:&C-3':H/&-.%".-*$&0%"/*-;:3L&2&*:!&
delu pa je njegov pristop do snovi bolj teore-
*-;:3& $.-%$!"& /$3H:0*>"1:3(& M4& /$4& -3& /4"#&
#:&B:8:4-1$&0%-I1$&2&*"&0%:0-8L&8:2:4"&3-&#"83$(&
)$+3$& #:L& 4"& -.2-%"& -.& /"/:'"& 4%>':'"& C-3-
':H/$2:'"&4:1"&-3&'"&#:&3:/4$&0$.3:#:&4$4"1L&
;:0%"2&3:&2:!$L&."/"#&2&*"/$&$/%3#:3-&$B1-/-(&
f:&0"&*$&I:&:3&4$/".L&4"&$=%"3#:3-&4%:84:38/-&
%$/$0-8& 3-/"/$%& 3-& 0%2$*3-& -.2-%3-/L& *:!2:;&
:4:3&$4&0$.3:#I-=&0%:0-8$2(
76 ! V O J A Š K A Z G O D O V I N A
the opponent - as with each of the main strikes one
can decide the fight while the opponent is still stand-
*2O&*2&$23&$;&':3&OB"%8E.&N*6*1"%1C-&':3&;32F3%&F"2-&
IC& F:"2O*2O& :*E& OB"%8-& >%3@32'& ':3& $>>$232'& ;%$6&
"''"F,*2O&:*6&]*':&"2&">>%$>%*"'3&E'%*,3.&g3'-&*'&F"2&
occur that the opponent is equally experienced and
3dB"11C& "FdB"*2'38& ]*':& ':3& 8$F'%*23.& W2& ':*E& F"E3-&
it is possible that a good warrior loses the initiative
]:32& ':3& E]$%8E& "%3& *2& "& I*28.& 5:3%3;$%3-& `*2O3F,&
focused in his techniques particularly on how to respond
to such an attack in order to regain the ini-
'*"'*@3& h& E*O2*;C*2O& ':"'& ]3& ]*11& *283E& 9*2E'"2'1C=-&
]:32&':3&E]$%8E&"%3&*2&"&I*28-&;%$6&':3&2"F:&h&':3&
l";'3%fh&"28&F:"2O3&*2'$&':3&@$%&h&':3&lI3;$%3f&$%&':3&
"8@"2'"O3.& 5:3%3;$%3-& ]:32-& "'& ;*%E'& O1"2F3-& ':3%3&
seem to be inconsistencies in Liechtenauer’s teach-
*2OE-&*'&*E-&*2&;"F'-&"&>%"F'*F"1&">>%$"F:&$;&':3&6"E'3%&
]:$-&"F%$EE&6"2C&C3"%E&$;&>%"F'*F*2O&"28&'3"F:*2O&
':3&"%'&$;&;32F*2O-&B283%E'$$8&"11&':3&'%">E&*2&]:*F:&
a duellist may be caught. He understood very well
]:"'&]"E&*6>$%'"2'&'$&'3"F:&'$&"&]"%%*$%-&E$&':"'&
he would learn how to save his life in the direst of
situations.
The section dealing with the longsword includes a
@3%C&*2'3%3E'*2O&>"%'&':"'&E'"%'E&$2&>"O3&XX@-&";'3%&':3&
part that describes the fighting with the sword and
the buckler. It is a partial summary of how to learn
the use of the longsword. The first thing that can be
noticed in the text is that it follows the part that deals
with fighting with the one-handed sword and the
IBF,13%&]:*F:&*E&"F'B"11C&*11$O*F"1.&/88*'*$2"11C-&$21C&
3a'%"F'E& $;& D*3F:'32"B3%fE& @3%E3E& "%3& ]%*''32& 8$]2-&
]:3%3"E&':3&3a>1"2"'*$2&*E-&*%%3E>3F'*@3&$;&':"'&*'&*E&
$21C&>"%'*"1-&"1E$&F$6>13'31C&8*;;3%32'&;%$6&':3&$23&
we are used to from Ringeck. While Ringeck used a
@3%C&>%"F'*F"1&">>%$"F:&*2&':3&%3E'&$;&':3&'3a'-&:*E&">proach
to the topic in this section is more of a conceptual
nature. It is not clear where and when this text
became part of this copy. It is possible that it originates
from another of Ringeck’s treaties and was later
"8838&IC&E$63$23-&"1':$BO:&*'&*E&2$'&3@*832'&]:C&*2&
EBF:&"&FB%'"*138&;$%6.&g3'-&':*E&*E&"2$':3%&>%$$;&':"'&
the preserved Dresden manuscript is not the original
6"2B"1-&IB'&"&F$>C&]%*''32&"'&"&1"'3%&'*63.&
Fighting with a sword and buckler
5:3& E3F$28& E3F'*$2-& ;*O:'*2O& ]*':& "& E]$%8& "28&
IBF,13%-&*E&':3&E:$%'3E'&'3a'&*2&`*2O3F,fE&6"2B"1&F$6prising
only four pages of the manuscript. The section
describes six techniques and if we compare this part
]*':&':3&F:">'3%&$2&;*O:'*2O&]*':&':3&1$2OE]$%8-&]3&
might be surprised by the way of how Ringeck dealt
with it. He did not present any guards or individual

E2#'14&#'(@(='%'=(B&(F%BD32=
O%>'-&8/1$0L&B$#&.&!:;:!&-3&I;-*/$!L&#:&3"#-
/%"#I-& 2& C-3':H/$2:!& 4:1>L& 8"#& $B8:'"& 1:& I*-%-&
8*%"3-&%$/$0-8"(&A%:48*"21#:3-=&#:&1:&I:8*&0$8*$0-
/$2&-3&;:&*"&4:1&0%-!:%#"!$&8&0$'1"2#:!&$&B$#>&
.&4$1'-!&!:;:!L&0%:8:3:;"&3";-3L&/"/$&#:&C-3-
':H/&$0%"2-1&.&3#-!(&A%:48*"2-1&3-&3-*-&0%:+&3-*-&
0$8"!:.3-=&>4"%H:2L&3-;:8"%&3-&0$2:4"1&3-*-&$&
*:=3-/-&B$#:2"3#"(&9"3-!-2$&#:L&4"&2&0$.3:#I:!&
0%-%$;3-/>&A:*%"&2$3&O"3.-'"&-.&1:*"&R\YV&3"#-
4:!$&-8*:&0$8*$0/:L&*"/%"*&-.0$4&0:%:8"&E34%:-
#"&&.&!:;:!&-3&
I;-*/$!L&."*$&#:&0$28:!&!$'$;:L&4"&#:&C-3':H/&
3#:'$2&0%-80:2:/&2/1#>;-1&2&82$#:&4:1$(&5$&B-&1"=ko
pojasnilo razliko med tem sklopom in drugimi
deli Ringeckove knjige. Poleg tega v njem ne
3"#4:!$&&
8&0$'1"2#-L&/-&$B%"23"2"#$&B$#&.&4$1'-!&!:;:!&
ter bojevanje v oklepu na konju ali peš.
9"%"4-&3";-3"&$0-8"&*:'"&4:1"&B$#:2"3#"&8$-
4$B3:!>& %".-8/$2"1H>& 3:& 0%:$8*"3:& 4%>':'"L&
/$*& 4"& 8:& ."& %".>!:2"3#:& B$#:2"3#"& .& !:;:!&
-3& I;-*/$!& 2%3:& 2& $B4$B#:& 0%:4& :%-
#:!L&3"&/$3:H&Re(&$.-%$!"&.";:*:/&R\(&8*$1:*#"(&
X.&*-8*:'"&$B4$B#"&3"!%:;&-.2-%"&3"#8*"%:#I-&4$&
zdaj znan srednjeveški Fechtbuch& 801$=L& /-& '"&
4"3:8&=%"3-#$&2&!>.:#>&C$g"1&E%!$>%-:8&2&#:&-./1#>;3$&B$#&.&!:;:!&-3&
I;-*/$!(&A$.3"2"3#:&*:'"&4:1"&1"=/$&0%:H:#&0$maga
pri razumevanju Lignitzerjevega besedi-
1"L&3:&'1:4:&3"&*$L&4"&8$4-&2&0%:41-:H=*:3">:%8/$&
$B4$B#:(&D-H:%&0"&*>4-&B$#&.&!:;:!&-3&I;-*/$!&
2&C-3':H/$2:!&0%-%$;3-/>&2&H:1$*-&81:4-&*:!:1#-
3-!&0%-3H-0$!&;:3#"(&6$*&
8:!& +:& $!:3-1L& #:& B-1"& 3"!%:;& _& 3:& '1:4:& 3"&
0$8"!:.3:& *:=3-;3:& 0$4%$B3$8*-& _& &%:2$1>H-$3"%3"&
predvsem zaradi zaradi svoje enostavnosti in
80:H-P-;3:'"&0%-8*$0"&/&B$#:2"3#>(
G232)26)4
5>4-&2&*:!&8/1$0>&3:&."81:4-!$&3:0$8%:43-=&
4-&3-&;>*-1&0$*%:B:L&4"&B-&#-=&
podrobneje opisoval. Ringeckova rokoborba se
*"/$&3"2:.>#:&0%:428:!&3"&>;:3#:&f>4"&M**"L&
E'%*,3E.&$EE*I13&':"'&`*2O3F,&
included it into his treatise. This could also explain
the difference between this section and the rest of
':3&'3a'&*2&`*2O3F,fE&6"2B"1.&PB%':3%6$%3-&':*E&>"%'&
8$3E& 2$'& *2F1B83& D*3F:'32"B3%fE& @3%E3E-& ]:*F:& 8*;fers
from the other chapters dealing with longsword
fighting and fighting in armour on horseback and
on foot.
Because of the style of the description of this part
$;&;*O:'*2O-&6$83%2&%3E3"%F:3%E&:"@3&'$&3a"6*23&':3&
'*63&I3;$%3&D*3F:'32"B3%-&':"'&*E&':3&328&$;&':3&Qc th
century or the beginning of the 14 th &F32'B%C-&'$&B283%stand
the method of fighting with a sword and buck-
13%.&P%$6&':*E&'*63-&"&8$FB632'&:"E&I332&>%3E3%@38&
which is known to be the earliest medieval martial
arts manual and is currently in the collection of the
museum Royal Armouries in London Tower known as
':3&F$83a&!N&W.cc&9_23Z':*%'CZ'%33=.&W'&83"1E&32'*%31C&
]*':&':3&BE3&$;&':3&E]$%8&"28&IBF,13%.&72$]*2O&':*E&
8$FB632'& 6"C& :31>& '$& B283%E'"28& D*O2*'+3%fE& '3a'-&
although it belongs to the period before Liechtenauer.
Also the description of fighting with a sword and
buckler in Ringeck’s manual follows the basic principle
of Liechtenauer’s teachings. As I have mentioned
earlier – irrespective of individual technical details
– Liechtenauer’s doctrine was in its times revolution-
"%C-&*2&>"%'*FB1"%&I3F"BE3&$;&*'E&E*6>1*F*'C&"28&*'E&E>3cific
approach to combat as such.
Wrestling
/1E$-&':*E&>"%'&8$3E&2$'&*2F1B83&D*3F:'32"B3%fE&8*-
%3F'&'3"F:*2OE.&/1':$BO:&:3&]"E-&"E&6"2C&$':3%&]"%-
%*$%E&$;&:*E&3%"-&"2&3aF31132'&]%3E'13%-&:3&3@*832'1C&8*8&
2$'& BE3& :*E& $]2& E>3F*;*F& '3F:2*dB3E& "28-& ':3%3;$%3-&
"1E$-&8*8&2$'&':*2,&*'&]"E&23F3EE"%C&'$&83'"*1&':36&
in his manual. Ringeck’s wrestling techniques are
*2&F1$E3&F$223F'*$2&]*':&':3&'3"F:*2OE&$;&_''$&eB8-&
the Austrian wrestling master who worked at the
Habsburg court in the first decades of the 15 th century.
His teachings can be found in the Manual of Peter
@$2& 4"2+*O& "28& :"8& "& :BO3& *6>"F'& $2& $':3%& '%3"ties
of this type originating from the 15 th & F32'B%C-&
for example the codex of Wallerstein and Talhoffer’s
manuals. 17
17 Codex Wallerstein, Universitätsbibliothek, Augsburg, Cod. I.6.4°.2, fol. 16r–20v,
M I L I T A R Y H I S T O R Y ! 77

"28*%-#8/:'"&!$#8*%"&%>2"3#"L&/-&#:&2&0%2-=&4:-
8:*1:*#-=& RY(& 8*$1:*#"& 4:1$2"1& 3"& ="B8B>%I/:!&
42$%>(& K#:'$2$& >;:3#:& 3"#4:!$& 2& 0%-%$;3-/>&
A:*%"&2$3&O"3.-'"L&!$;3$&0"&#:&201-2"1$&*>4-&
3"&4%>'"&4:1"&*:&2%8*:&-.&RY(&8*$1:*#"L&30%(&/$-
4:/8& p"11:%8*:-3& *:%& 5"1=$PP:%#:2-=& Fechtbuchih.
17
E2#'14&#'(1(23"'5$(B&(&4(32&#$
@& ."43#-=& 42:=& 8/1$0-=& C-3':H/$2:'"& 4:1"&
80:*&3"1:*-!$&3"&8/%-23$8*3:&& 2& $/1:0>& >0$%"B1#"*-L& -3& 8-H:%& 8>1-H$L&
4$1'-& !:;& -3& B$4"1$(& O:#8*2$L& /-& *>4-& 2& *:!&
4:1>&C-3':H/$2:'"&B:8:4-1"&3"#B$1#&0%:8:3:;"L&
0"&#:L&4"&*>4-&*>&!"3#/"#$&0$8*$0/-&.&B$4"1$!L&
:3"/$&/$*&2&4:1>L&/-&$B%"23"2"&*(&-(&blös fechtenL&
B$#:2"3#:&B%:.&$/1:0"(&)$'$;:&#:&8-H:%L&4"&#-=&
#:&C-3':H/&3"!:%3$&-.0>8*-1L&/:%&8:&/2"%-
#"1&.&3#-!-L&2:34"%&B-&8:&2&*:!&0%-!:%>&!$%"1&
$40$2:4"*-& *>4-& $B%"23"2"3#>& B$#"& .& !:;:!&
-3&I;-*/$!&*:%&%$/$B$%B:(&)$'$;:&0"&#:&*>4-L&
da je prvotno Ringeckovo besedilo vsebovalo
*>4-&0$8*$0/:&B$#:2"3#"&.&B$4"1$!L&"&8$&8:&0$-
.3:#:&-.'>B-1-(&6&*:!>&!:&3"0:1#>#:&4:#8*2$L&4"&
*>4-&4:1L&/-&$B%"23"2"&B$#:2"3#:&3"&/$3#>L&3-&
0$0$13L& *:!2:;& #:& 3:3"4$!"& B%:.& /"/%I3:'"&
/$1-&%".1$'"&0%:/-3#:3L&-.&;:8"%&8/1:0"!L&4"&8:&
je nadaljevanje izgubilo.
@&8/1$0>&$&B$#:2"3#>&2&$/1:0>&1"=/$&.3$2"&
."81:4-!$&28:&.3";-13$8*-&&
>0$%"B1#"1-&4%>'-&!$#8*%-L&*"/$#&$0".-!$L&4"&#:&
&
0%-4:& 80:*& 4$& -.%"."& (& A%"2& *"/$& #:& 2& $/1:01#:-
3:!&B$#>&-.%".-*"&3#:'$2"&*:+3#"L&4"&B-&B$#&/"%&
3"#=-*%:#:&/$3;"1L&;:0%"2&#:&*$&2&*:!&0%-!:%>&
-.&%".>!1#-2-=&%".1$'$2&0%:H:#&*:+:&4$8:;-(&X3&
/$3;3$&8:&80:*&8%:;"!$&.&3"%-&1$2OE]$%8&"28&':3&8"OO3%.&!$E'&
surprisingly in this part of Ringeck’s text is that the
8"OO3%&'3F:2*dB3E&"%3&6*EE*2O&"O"*2-&E*6*1"%1C&'$&':3&
>"%'&838*F"'38&'$&)1${;3F:'32-&B2"%6$B%38&;32F*2O.&
g3'-&`*2O3F,&6*O:'&:"@3&$6*''38&':36&$2&>B%>$E3-&"E&
D*3F:'32"B3%-&"E&;"%&"E&]3&,2$]&IC&2$]-&8*8&2$'&3a-
>1*F*'1C&83"1&]*':&':3E3&'3F:2*dB3E.&b$]3@3%-&*2&':*E&
case he should have omitted also the fighting with the
sword and the buckler as well as wrestling. Another
>$EE*I13&3a>1"2"'*$2&*E&':"'&$%*O*2"11C-&`*2O3F,fE&'3a'&
8*8& "1E$& *2F1B83& 8"OO3%& ;*O:'*2O& '3F:2*dB3E-& ]:*F:&
were later lost. I came to this conclusion based on
the fact that the part dealing with horseback fighting
*E&2$'&F$6>13'3-&IB'&*E&EB88321C&*2'3%%B>'38&]*':$B'&
any particular reason. From this I gather that the
continuation of the text was lost.
In the section referring to armoured fighting one
can again trace all characteristics of Liechtenauer’s
combat system. If his guards are compared to those
BE38&IC&$':3%&6"E'3%fE&*2&:*E&1*;3'*63-&$23&F"2&*6mediately
observe that Liechtenauer limited their
2B6I3%& '$& #BE'& ':%33& I"E*F& OB"%8E-& "28& "& ;*2"1&
;$B%':& OB"%8& ]:*F:-& C3'-& ]"E& BE38& $21C& *2& ':3& ;*-
2"1&>"%'&$;&':3&;*O:'*2O-&'$&>BE:&':3&$>>$232'&"]"C.&
k21*,3& D*3F:'32"B3%-& ]:$& "8@$F"'3E& ':%33& OB"%8E-&
the Italian master Fiore dei Liberi uses as many
as six basic guards. This fact again emphasises
Liechtenauer’s tendency to rationalise and simplify
the techniques used when fighting. This reveals
his tendency to conclude the fighting as quickly as
>$EE*I13-& "1':$BO:-& *2& ':*E& F"E3-& dB*'3& 8*;;*FB1'& '$&
"F:*3@3& 8B3& '$& $I@*$BE& %3"E$2E.& P*2"11C-& ]3& "O"*2&
come across Lichtenauer’s and Ringeck’s constant
emphasising of the meaning of taking over and
keeping the initiative in fighting:
ÑG$%&@28&2"F:L&8*3&+]"C&8*2O&I%*3;;3&]C{1*F:3%Üz&
Ñ/I$@3&"11&$':3%&':*2OE-&C$B&6BE'&B283%E'"28&':3&
>%*2F*>13E&$;&lI3;$%3f&9G$%=&"28&l";'3%f&9M"F:=.z 18
W2& $%83%& '$& O"*2& ':3& "8@"2'"O3-& $23& :"E-& *;& >$E-
E*I13-&'$&"''"F,&;*%E'-&6"*2'"*2&':3&*2*'*"'*@3&"28&F$2stantly
attack so that the opponent cannot respond
with a counter-attack. If the opponent overruns and
33r–67v; Mark Rector, A Fifteenth Century Illustrated Manual of Swordfighting
and Close-Quarter Combat by Hans Talhoffer, London 2000, sl. 190 – 221.
18 Mscr. Dresd. C 487, fol. 102r.

0%:2.:!"3#"&-3&$=%"3#"3#"&0$B>4:&2&B$#>J&
»G$%&@28&2"F:L&8*3&+]"C&8*2O&I%*3;;3&]C{1*cher…«
»Prej in potem – ti dve stvari spoznaj.« 18
O"&0%-4$B-I&0%:43$8*L&!$%"I&*$%:#L&;:&#:&1:&
!$'$;:L&3"0"8*-&0%2-L&0$*:!&0"&$B4%+"*-&0$B>-
4$&-3&2:8&;"8&3"0"4"*-L&4"&3"80%$*3-/&3:&!$%:&
$4'$2$%-*-& 8& 0%$*-3"0"4$!(& ^:& 0"& *:& 3"80%$-
*3-/&0%:=-*-&-3&3"0"4:&0%2-L&8:&3:&8!:I&."4$2$-
1#-*-&1:&.&$42%";"3#:!L&*:!2:;&!$%"I&>0$%"B-*-&
*Ö/$&0%:>8!:%#"3#:&3"80%$*3-/$2:'"&!:;"L&/-&
*-& 3>4-& !$+3$8*& *"/$#I3#:'"& 0%$*-3"0"4"& -3&
prevzema pobude. Prav tako spet najdemo poj-
!:L&.3"3:&+:&-.&B$#:2"3#"&.&4$1'-!&!:;:!L&/$*&
8$& m81:4:3#:& .& $4'$2$%$!nL& m0%$4$%nL& m0$*:'&
3"."#nL& m0%:=-*:2"3#:nL& 0%:428:!& 0"& winden
am schwert 7."2-#"3#:&2&2:."2-?L&/-&#:&2%=>3:H&
%3-=& !$#8*%$2-=& 2:%.$2& -3& 3:/"#&
%$/$0-8$2& 2& 8*"%-& 3:!I;-3-(& X3& 2:34"%& 8$& 4:1&
3"I:&.'$4$2-3:&-3&*%"4-H-#:L&8"#&8!$&0%-0"4"1-&
-8*:!>&/>1*>%3:!>&0%$8*$%>L&2&/"*:%:!&8$&4:-
1$2"1-&*>4-&f$="33:8&34&C-3':H/(&@:I;-3"L&/-&8$&#$&
%".2-#"1-L&8:&#:&%".2-#"1"&*>4-&3"&3"I:!&$.:!1#>&
-3&!:4&3"I-!-&1#>4!-(&9"*$&#:&B-1&8/%"#3-&;"8L&
da smo ta del naše vojaške in bojevniške zgo-
4$2-3:&.";:1-&$4/%-2"*-&*>4-&2&D1$2:3-#-L&0$.3$&
8-H:%& -3& 0$;"8-L& 2:34"%& 8:!& 0%:0%-;"3L& 4"& 8:&
nam bo z delom in vztrajnostjo nekaj zagnan-
H:2L&/-&0$8/>I"#$&*"/$&2&*:$%-#-&/$*&2&0%"/8-&0%:-
>;:2"*-& 8%:43#:2:I/:& B$%-13:& 2:I;-3:& 3"I:'"&
0%$8*$%"L& $4/%-1& -.#:!3$& B$'"*& 8:'!:3*& 3"I:&
-3&I-%I:&:2%$08/:&.'$4$2-3:(&6"#*-&;1$2:/&8:&#:L&
0$1:'&*:'"L&4"&8:&#:&>/2"%#"1&.&$B%*#$L&/!:*$-
2"1L&*%'$2"1L&/>1*>%3$&-3&>!:*3-I/$&>8*2"%#"1L&
2:43$&*>4-&B$#:2"1L&3";-3&3#:'$2:'"&B$#:2"3#"&
0"&3"!&1"=/$&2:1-/$&0$2:&$&3#:'$2:!&.3";"-
#>&-3&!-8:13$8*-&2&8/%"#3-=&%".!:%"=(&X3&1:&-.&
80$.3"2"3#"&;1$2:/"&2&28:=&0$'$#-=&3#:'$2:'"&
B-2"3#"&B$!$&1"=/$&%".>!:1-&*>4-&2.'-B:L&/-&8$&
3"I:&0%:43-/:&0%-0:1#"1-&4$&*:'"L&4"&8$&>8*2"%--
1-&*"/$&.'$4$2-3$L&/"/%I3$&8$(
18 Mscr. Dresd. C 487, fol. 102r.
"''"F,E&;*%E'&$23&E:$B18&2$'&83;328&$21C-&IB'&83;13'F'&
':3&$>>$232'fE&E]$%8-&]:*F:&':32&"11$]E&':3&>$EE*I*1ity
of an immediate counterattack and takeover of
':3&*2*'*"'*@3.&/O"*2-&$23&F"2&;*28&'3%6E&':"'&]3%3&
used in the section of fighting with the longsword:
l'%"@311*2O& ";'3%f-& l%B22*2O& ':%$BO:f-& l']*'F:*2Of-&
l$@3%%B22*2Of-&"28&6$E'&*6>$%'"2'&$;&"11&]*2832&"6&
EF:]3%'&9l]*28*2O&"'&':3&E]$%8f=-&]:*F:&%3>%3E32'&':3&
clou of Liechtenauer fighting techniques.
Conclusion
Martial arts schools that directly derived from
Liechtenauer’s tradition and also covered the
N1$@32*"2&"%3"&8*E">>3"%38&">>%$a*6"'31C&UXS&C3"%E&
after the master’s death and were forgotten. Almost
2$':*2O& $;& ':36& ]"E& >%3E3%@38-& IB'& "& ;3]& $IEFB%3&
verses of the master and a few manuscripts in old
K3%6"2.&N'*11-&':3C&"%3&>"%'&$;&N1$@32*"2&:*E'$%C&"28&
tradition as we were part of the same cultural cir-
F13&"E&e$:"223E&D*3F:'32"B3%-&b"2,$&4qI%*2O3%&"28&
Sigmund Ringeck. The martial arts they were developing
undoubtly saw its further development also
$2& $B%& E$*1& "28& "6$2O& $B%& >3$>13.& W'& *E-& ':3%3;$%3-&
overdue to discover this part of Slovenia’s military
"28&F$6I"'&13O"FC&"E&]311.&/1':$BO:&1"'3&"28&E1$]-&W&
am convinced that the work and the perseverance of
"&;3]&32':BE*"E'E-&]:$&E'B8C&638*3@"1&6"%'*"1&"%'E&
$;&':*E&%3O*$2&*2&':3$%C&"28&>%"F'*F"11C-&]*11&%3@3"1&
an exceptionally rich part of the Slovenian as well as
3"2&:*E'$%C.&!"2&:"E-&"1$2O&]*':&32O"O*2O&*2&
F%";'E-&;"%6&]$%,-&'%"83-&"E&]311&"E&FB1'B%"1&"28&"%-
'*E'*F&F%3"'*@323EE-&"1E$&>"%'*F*>"'38&*2&F$6I"'.&b*E&
combat methods can tell us a lot about his character
"28&]"C&$;&':*2,*2O&*2&3a'%363&E*'B"'*$2E.&_21C&IC&
understanding man in all the circumstances of life
will we have the opportunity to learn more about the
course of history as we know it today.
Abstract
The German School of Fencing was established in
the second half of the 14 th century. This is a com-
I"'&ECE'36-&'"BO:'&IC&;32F*2O&6"E'3%E&"F%$EE&032'%"1&
Europe from the middle of the 14 th century until the
end of the 16 th century. It is described in the then
'3a'I$$,E& $%& 6"2B"1E& $2& F$6I"'-& ':3& E$& F"1138&
Fechtbücher. The majority of authors followed the
>%*2F*>13E&$;&e$:"223E&D*3F:'32"B3%-&':3&6$E'&*6>$%tant
German master and fencing instructor of the
14 th century. Already at the end of the 14 th &F32'B%C-&
M I L I T A R Y H I S T O R Y ! 79

$,0"5"#
K:!I/"&!:;:2"18/"&I$1"&-.="#"&-.&4%>':&0$-
1$2-H:&R\(&8*$1:*#"L&'%:&0"&."&B$%-13-&8-8*:!L&/-&
8$&'"&!:;:2"18/-&!$#8*%-&0$&28:#&8%:43#-&F2%$0-&
>;-1-& $4& 8%:4-3:& R\(& 0"& 28:& 4$& /$3H"& RS(& 8*$-
1:*#"(&M0-8"3&#:&2&*"/%"*3-=&>;B:3-/-=&$.(&0%--
%$;3-/-=&$&B$#:2"3#>L&*(&-(&Fechtbücher. Velika
2:;-3"&"2*$%#:2&*:=&!:;:2"18/-=&>;B:3-/$2&#:&
81:4-1"&>;:3#>&f$="33:8"&:%#:2&
8-8*:!&8$&+:&/$3:H&R\(L&0$*:!&0"&2&RY(&-3&RS(&
8*$1:*#>&%".1"'"1-L&%".2-#"1-L&4:13$&0"&*>4-&80%:-
!-3#"1-&"1-&3"*"3;3:#:&%:;:3$&0%-1"'"#"1-&I*:2-1-
3-&!:;:2"18/-&!$#8*%-J&$4&l"3/"&OyB%-3':%#"&
prek Sigmunda Ringecka in Petra von Danziga
0"&4$&A">1"&l:H*$%#"&)"-%"&-3&f$"H=-!"&):yerja.
,$%-13-&0%-%$;3-/-L&/-&8$&#-=&.";:1-&$4/%-2"*-&
2&RW(&8*$1:*#>L&8$&0$8*"2-1-&3"&'1"2$&4$*:4"3#:&
0%:0%-;"3#:L& 4"& #:& B-1$& B$#:2"3#:& 2& 8%:43#:!&
2:/>& 0%:428:!& B%>*"13$& /1"3#:L& ."& /"*:%$& 3-&
bilo potrebno posebno znanje. Seveda pa se je
*%:B"&."2:4"*-L&4"&8$4-#$&2:I;-3:L&$0-8"3:&2&*:=&
0%-%$;3-/-=L&*"/$&%:/$;&2&2-8$/$&I$1$&!:;:2"1ske
umetnosti ter da je bil boj med bitko na
B$#3:!& 0$1#>& 2-4:*-& 0$0$13$!"& 4%>'";:(& A$-
8*$0/-L&$0-8"3-&2&3:!I/-=&FechtbücherL&8$&3"-
!%:;&3"!:3#:3-&0%:428:!&42$B$#:2"1H:!L&-3&
*$&.1"8*-&3"&>%"43-=&8$43-=&42$B$#-=(
):4&0$8"!-;3-!-&4"3:8&.3"3-!-&B$%-13-!-&
0%-%$;3-/-&0"&$B8*"#"#$&2:1-/:&%".1-/:(&^:&#:&B-1&
pristop k snovi denimo pri Hanku Döbringer-
#>& 0$'$#3$& %:;:3$& B$1#& /$3H:0*>"1:3L& #:& 30%(&
0%-8*$0&D-'!>34"&C-3':H/"&-.%".-*$&*:=3-;:3(&
A%2-&#:&0$>4"%#"1&P-1$.$P-#$&B$#:2"3#"L&*:!:1#3:&
0%-3H-0:& 0$%"B1#:3-=&
postopkov. Svoj Fechtbuch& #:& .";:1& .& &.&OyB%-3':%#:!?&28"/-;&0$3>-
4-1&I*:2-13:&0%"/*-;3:&0$8*$0/:L&/-&$82:*1#>#:#$&
."/%-*$& 28:B-3$& !$#8*%$2-=& 2:%.$2(& 5"/$& 0%2-&
kot drugi pristop sta za današnje raziskovalce
-.#:!3$&4%"'$H:3"L&8"#&1:&$B"&8/>0"#&0$3>#"*"&
."4$2$1#-2&20$'1:4&-3&$!$'$;"*"&%".>!:2"3#:&
*:'"L&/"%&-!:3>#:!$&3:!I/"&B$%-13"&I$1"(
M83$23-&0%-3H-0&;:3#"&
#:&B-1"&8/%"#3"&>;-3/$2-*$8*L&0$2:."3"&8&0%:0%$-
8*$&-.2:4B$&%".1-;3-=&0$8*$0/$2&-3&3:3:=3-!&
80 ! V O J A Š K A Z G O D O V I N A
and then also in the 15 th and 16 th & F32'B%*3E-& ':3&
D*3F:'32"B3%fE&ECE'36&]"E&3a>1"*238-&83@31$>38&"28&
partially also modified by a range of fencing mas-
'3%E-&*2F1B8*2O&b"2,$&4qI%*2O3%-&N*O6B28&`*2O3F,-&
H3'3%&@$2&4"2+*O-&H"B1&b3F'$%&"28&e$"F:*6&!3C3%.&
!"2B"1E& $2& 6"%'*"1& "%'E-& ]:*F:& E'"%'38& '$& I3&
8*EF$@3%38& *2& ':3& QV th & F32'B%C-& F$6>13'31C& F:"2O38&
the conviction that medieval combat was mainly a
brutal slaughter for which no special knowledge was
required. We must also bear in mind that the mar-
'*"1&"%'E-&83EF%*I38&*2&':3E3&6"2B"1E-&I31$2O&'$&':3&
category of higher fencing arts and that the combat
during a battle on a battlefield looked completely
8*;;3%32'.& 5:3& >%$F38B%3E-& 83EF%*I38& *2& K3%6"2&
P3F:'IoF:3%-&]3%3&838*F"'38&6"*21C&'$&8B31*E'E-&3E>3-
F*"11C&"'&;$%6"1&#B8*F*"1&F$B%'&8B31E.&_;&F$B%E3&]3&F"2&
find some considerable differences among manuals
$2&6"%'*"1&"%'E&]3&,2$]&'$8"C.&P$%&3a"6>13-&b"2,$&
4qI%*2O3%fE& ">>%$"F:& ]"E& 6$%3& F$2F3>'B"1-& ]:*13&
Sigmund Ringeck’s was more technical. Döbringer
]"E&;$FBE38&$2&':3&>:*1$E$>:C&$;&F$6I"'-&"E&]311&"E&
$2&I"E*F&>%*2F*>13E&$;&D*3F:'32"B3%fE&8$F'%*23-&]:*13&
Ringeck addressed technical details of the procedures
used. His Fechtbuch begins with Liechtenauer’s verses
]:*F:& I"%31C& 8*;;3%& ;%$6& ':3& $23E& 4qI%*2O3%& BE38-&
:$]3@3%-& :3& F$2'*2B3E& ]*':& 83'"*138& 3a>1"2"'*$2E&
of individual verses and (unlike Döbringer) offers a
range of practical procedures which try to explain
the hidden content of the verses. Both approaches are
very valuable in current research since only together
do they offer a satisfactory review and understanding
of the German School of Fencing.
The basic principle of Liechtenauer’s doctrine was
B1'*6"'3&3;;*F*32FC-&%31"'38&'$&"&E*6>13&3a3FB'*$2&$;&
various procedures and constant endeavours to gain
and maintain the initiative during combat. In this
context the master was extremely consistent from
':3& @3%C& I3O*22*2O-& E*2F3-& ;%$6& "& %"2O3& $;& OB"%8E&
BE38&"'&':"'&'*63-&:3&F:$E3&$21C&;$B%&]:*F:-&*2&:*E&
$>*2*$2-&]$B18&I3&EB;;*F*32'.&b3&"1E$&BE38&$21C&;*@3&
I"E*F& E'%*,3E& ]:*F:-& *2& :*E& $>*2*$2-& ]3%3& ':3& $21C&
E'%*,3E&]$%':&BE*2O&*2&F$6I"'-&"28&]:*F:&1"'3%&"B-
':$%E& F"1138& l6"E'3%& E'%*,3Ef& 9!3*E'3%:"B32=.& 5:3&
most important things that deserve our attention
8B%*2O&F$6I"'&"%3&lI3;$%3f&h&@$%-&l':32f&h&2"F:&"28&
l*2&':*Ef&h&*283E.&l)3;$%3f&h&@$%&h&63"2E&'$&I3&*2&"2&
"8@"2'"O3$BE& >$E*'*$2-& '$& :$18& "2& *2*'*"'*@3-& '$& I3&
the one who dictates the course of the combat. The
$>>$232'&6BE'&83;328&:*6E31;-&]:*F:&63"2E&':"'&:3&
1"OE&I3:*28-&l':32f&h&2"F:.&W;&':3&$>>$232'&$@3%'",3E&
C$B&"28&C$B&1"O&I3:*28-&C$B&6BE'&l*2&':*Ef&h&*283E&h&
find out how to continue to regain the initiative and
achieve an advantageous position.

0%-."4:2"3#:!&0%:2.:*-&-3&$B4%+"*-&0$B>4$&2&
boju. Glede tega je bil veliki mojster izjemno
4$81:4:3&+:&3"&.";:*/>L&8"#&#:&-.&2:1-/:'"&3"-
B$%"&0%:+L&/-&8$&#-=&>0$%"B1#"1-&2&3#:'$2:!&$B-
4$B#>L&-.B%"1&1:&I*-%-L&/-&8$&0$&3#:'$2:!&!3:3#>&
popolnoma zadostovale. Uporabljal je tudi le
0:*& $83$23-=& >4"%H:2L& 0$& 3#:'$2:!& !3:3#>&
:4-3-=L& /-& #-=& #:& 2& B$#>& 2%:43$& >0$%"B1#"*-& -3&
/-&8$&#-=&0$.3:#I-&"2*$%#-&0$-!:3$2"1-&m!$#8*%ski
udarci« (Meisterhauen?(& K"#0$!:!B3:#I:L&
3"&/"%&#:&*%:B"&B-*-&0$.$%:3&!:4&B$#:!L&0"&#:&
»prej« - vorL&m0$*:!n&[&nach in »v tem« - indes.
»Prej« - vor&0$!:3-&B-*-&2&0%:43$8*-L&-!:*-&0$-
B>4$L& *$%:#& 3"0"4"*-L& 3"%:/$2"*-& 0$*:/& B$#"L&
3"80%$*3-/&0"&8:&!$%"&B%"3-*-L&/"%&0$!:3-L&4"&
#:&2&."$8*"3/>L&m0$*:!n&[&nach(&^:&*:&3"80%$-
*3-/&0%:=-*-&-3&8:&*-&.3"#4:I&2&m."$8*"3/>nL&!$raš
»v tem« - indes&>'$*$2-*-L&/"/$&3"0%:#L&4"&
boš znova prevzel pobudo in prešel v prednost.
)$#8*%$2&3">/&8$&+:&.:1$&.'$4"#&.";:1-&80%:-
!-3#"*-&$.(&%".2-#"*-&3#:'$2-&3:0$8%:43-&>;:3H-(&
5"&%".2$#&8:&#:&3"*$&3"4"1#:2"1&I:&2&3"81:43#-=&
42:8*$&1:*-=L&2:34"%&8:&$83$23-&0%-3H-0-L&/-&#-=&
#:& .";%*"1& 632'& F$2'*2B38& ;$%& "2$':3%& USS&
C3"%E-& :$]3@3%-& ':3& I"E*F& >%*2F*>13E-& 3E'"I1*E:38& IC&
Liechtenauer never changed to the extent of not being
%3F$O2*+"I13.
M I L I T A R Y H I S T O R Y ! 81

82 ! V O J A Š K A Z G O D O V I N A

J$+-)&4$>$2&#$1$3#"87&,$+,$2"&F"-1)#7&41$5)&
K7-817-2"+6&2"**7&IE7*)&4$*"5)&ALMB&
The Military Campaign of Duke Henry of Carinthia
against Cangrande della Scala,
Summer of 1324
!
U0,*"%"#
" # $ % & ' ( % ) % *
univ. dipl. zgodovinar, kustos
Narodni muzej Slovenije, Prešernova 20, 1000 Ljubljana; e-mail: tomaz.lazar@nms.si
V 14. st. so v severni Italiji delovale številne
:3$*:& *>#-=& 3"#:!3-I/-=& 2$#"/$2L& /-& 8$& 0%-="-
#"1-&*>4-&-.&81$2:38/:'"&:*3-;3:'"&0%$8*$%"&-3&
3#:'$2:&3:0$8%:43:&$/$1-H:(&A$8:B:#&!3$+-;3$&
so vojake z našega ozemlja zajele vojaške dejavnosti
proti veronskemu vladarju Cangran-
4:#>& 4:11"& DH"1-(& @%=>3:H& 8$& 4$8:'1:& 8& 0$=$-
4$!&'$%-I/:'"&'%$P"&l:3%-/"L&/-&8:&#:&/$3;"1&
.&.!"'$&0%-&A"4$2-&"2'>8*"&ReVTL&*:%&.&3"0"dom
koroškega vojvode Henrika na Monselice
#>3-#"&-3&#>1-#"&ReV\(&A$=$4&2$#2$4:&l:3%-/"&8:&
#:&/$3;"1&0%:4;"83$&-3&B%:.&>80:="L&2:34"%&#:&
za vojaško zgodovino posebej zanimiv zaradi
$=%"3#:3-=&2-%$2L&/-&-.;%03$&$0-8>#:#$&."01:*:-
3:&P-3"3;3:&-3&1$'-8*-;3:&0%-0%"2:&3"3#(
!(52.#$&6$1$'$7&8%:43#-&2:/L&2$#"I/"&$%'"-
3-."H-#"L&X*"1-#"L&l:3%-/&i$%-I/-L&l:3%-/&6$%$-
I/-L& `"3'%"34:& 4:11"& DH"1"L& A"4$2"L& 5%:2-8$L&
)$38:1-H:L&3"#:!3-/-L&1$'-8*-/"(
9'$4$2-3"%& 8-& *:+/$& >8*2"%-& $B#:/*-23$&
mnenje o vojaški organiziranosti v srednjem
2:/>(& K"#& 8:& *:'"& ."2:4"!$& "1-& 3:L& *$& *:!"tiko
presojamo pod vtisi sodobnega vojskova-
3#"L&/"%&3"8&>*:'3:&."2:8*-&2&"3"=%$3-.!:(&MB&
površnem izvajanju Clausewitzeve teorije in
pristranskem branju virov so številni vojaški
.'$4$2-3"%#-L&0%:428:!&0"&$B%"!B$81$2H-L&0$-
'$8*$& 3:>0%"2-;:3$& 0$4H:3#:2"1-& .!$'1#-2$8*-&
Abstract
In the 14 th &F32'B%C-&2B63%$BE&;$%3*O2&63%F32"%*3E&
operated in Northern Italy. Some of them originated
from the Slovenian lands or their direct surrounding
area. A great number of soldiers from the Slovenian
territory were involved in military actions against
':3&G3%$23E3&%B13%-&0"2O%"283&8311"&NF"1".&5:3E3&"Ftions
culminated in the military campaign of Duke
Henry of Carinthia against Monselice in June and
eB1C&QcU[.&5:3&F"6>"*O2&$;&4B,3&b32%C&32838&3"%1C&
"28& "F:*3@38& 1*''13& EBFF3EE-& C3'-& *'& *E& $;& >"%'*FB1"%&
military historical interest due to the well-preserved
sources which give an exhaustive description of the
complicated financial and logistical preparations.
Key words:& !*8813& /O3E-& 6*1*'"%C& $%O"2*E"-
'*$2-&W'"1C-&0$B2'&b32%C&$;&K$%*+*"-&4B,3&b32%C&$;&
0"%*2':*"-&0"2O%"283&8311"&NF"1"-&H"8B"-&5%3@*E*$-&
!$2E31*F3-&63%F32"%*3E-&1$O*E'*FE.&
P$%&"&6$83%2&:*E'$%*"2-&*'&*E&2$'&':"'&3"EC&'$&;$%6&
an objective opinion on the military organisation
of the Middle Ages. Whether we are aware of it or
2$'-& $B%& "2"1CE3E& "%3& *2;1B32F38& IC& ':3& 3a>3%*32F3&
$;&6$83%2&]"%;"%3-&]:*F:&6*O:'&I3&6*E13"8*2O&"28&
result in anachronisms. As a result of a superficial
*6>13632'"'*$2&$;&01"BE3]*'+fE&':3$%C&"28&"&I*"E38&
B283%E'"28*2O&$;&':3&>%*6"%C&E$B%F3E-&6*1*'"%C&:*E-
'$%*"2E-&"28&"I$@3&"11&83;32F3&"2"1CE'E-&:"@3&$;'32&
wrongfully underestimated the capabilities of medieval
military systems. 1
1 The extensive treatise Vom Kriege"DP")>/"78*44,%'"E/'/8%$"M%8$"&2'"M$%*4/X,)W",4"
M I L I T A R Y H I S T O R Y ! 83

8%:43#:2:I/-=&2$#"I/-=&8-8*:!$2( 1
V nasprotju z razvitim sodobnim svetom je
bila totalna vojna v srednjeveški Evropi red-
/"(&C".!:%$!"&!"1$&#:&H:1$&0%-!:%$2&$41$;-1-
3-=&B-*/(&@$#"I/:&$0:%"H-#:&8$&-!:1:&0%"2-1$!"&
omejene cilje – povsem v skladu z znamenito
`1">8:G-*.:2$&*%4-*2-#$L&0$&/"*:%-&#:&2$#8/$2"-
3#:& 0%:0%$8*$& 3"4"1#:2"3#:& 0$1-*-/:& .& 4%>'";-
3-!-&8%:48*2-&_&-3&8$&8:&0$'$8*$&/$3;"1:&B%:.&
velikega spopada. Preden so nastale »sodob-
3:n&3"H-$3"13:&4%+"2:&8&H:3*%"1-.-%"3$&>0%"2$&
-3&>;-3/$2-*-!&B-%$/%"*8/-!&"0"%"*$!L&#:&B-1"&
$%'"3-."H-#"& $B$%$+:3-=& 8-1& 8*2"%& 21"4"%#:2&
$.-%$!"& 2-I#:'"& 01:!8*2"L& 3:0$8%:43$& $42--
83"& $4& *%:3>*3-=& .!$'1#-2$8*-& 3#-=$2:& B1"'"#-
3:L&0$1-*-;3:&!$;-&-3&>;-3/$2-*$8*-&>0%"23:'"&
"0"%"*"L&/-&#-!&#:&B-1$&*%:B"&4$4"*-&I:&$!:#-*2:&
prometnega in komunikacijskega sistema. To
#:&0$!:3-1$L&4"&*>4-&21"4"%#-&3"#3"0%:43:#I-=&
:2%$08/-=&4%+"2&2&0$.3:!&8%:43#:!&2:/>&3-8$&
B-1-&3-/$1-&80$8$B3-&!$B-1-.-%"*-&28:=&.!$'1#--
2$8*-L& *:!2:;& 8$& 2$#"I/:& $0:%"H-#:& -.2"#"1-& .&
!"1$I*:2-13-!-&:3$*"!-L&/-&8$&#-=&4:13$&3$2"-
;-1-&0$&P:24"13-=&"1-&."8:B3-=&.2:."=L&28:&B$1#&
0"& 8$& #-=& 0$0$13#:2"1-& 8& 0$/1-H3-!-& 2$#"/-L& /-&
#-=&#:&B-1$&*%:B"&01";:2"*-( V
9"*$&8$&I*:2-13-&0-8H-&B%:.&$!"=$2"3#"&8/1:-
3-1-L&4"&#:&2$#3"&2:I;-3"&2&8%:43#:!&2:/>&4$+--
2:1"&."*$3L&-.&/"*:%:'"&#:&3"0%:4$2"1"&2&2-I#$&
obliko šele od 16. ali 17. st. naprej. Toda ob
0$'1$B1#:3:!&0%:'1:4>&2-%$2&8:&/!"1>&0$/"+:L&
da je tako poenostavljeno razmišljanje sporno.
3 Dokaj dobro dokumentirani zgodnejši
$0:%"H-#-L& /-& /"+:*"& 3"& 8/%B3$& -.4:1"3$& 8*%"-
*:'-#$&-3&4$B%:&.!$'1#-2$8*-&*:4"3#-=&2$#8/L&8*"&
3$%!"38/$&."2.:*#:&E3'1-#:&.&$41$;-13$&.!"'$&
0%-&l"8*-3'8>&1:*"&RTSS&-3&0%2"&/%-+"%8/"&2$#na.
4 &X.&I*:2-1;3:#I-=&-3&B$1#&-.0$2:43-=&2-%$2L&/-&
8$&3"&2$1#$L&8-&1"=/$&>8*2"%-!$&I:&3"*"3;3:#I$&
@" kD4/V',")8%1)%)"?8*41/E%"E/'/8%$%"M%8$%"&2'"M$%*4/X,)W%"Vom Kriege velja za te-
0/$-'2"+/$2"&2-%(1/"J,$2W2J,-/9"3/?8%&"-/"W%8%+,"W%?$/)/'/E%"+,%$/1),3'/E%"4,4)/0%"
W%>)/&'2"D8%'-/."e2"+2+%)'2"2)/V*-/-2"'/W%+24)',"?8/&2+,",'"&/$,1%"8%W(,8-/'24)"
skrajšanih izdaj, ki nehote odstopajo od izvirnika. Zato je med obramboslovci in
+8*E,0,"8%W,412&%$=,"&2-%(1/")/28,-/"4?2+D*+,$2"8%W$,3'/"8%W$%E/",'"41$/?/9"&3%4,>"
)*+,")%1('/9"1,"4/"+/-%'412"'/"*-/0%-2"&/3"4"M$%*4/X,)W/&,0,",W&%-%'-,"%$,"?%"-,>"
neutemeljeno potencirajo. K negativnemu odnosu do vojskovanja v srednjem veku
je zlasti prispevala precej razširjena teza novejših analitikov, po kateri naj bi bila
&8>*'/="D2-'/E%"+/$2&%'-%"m%D42$*)'%n"&2-'%"2W,820%"%1),&',"4?2?%+9"&"1%)/8/0"
2+$23,$'2"*',3,02"'%4?82)',12&/"&2-%(1/"W02E$-,&24),."`2-'2"W"20/-/',0,"=,$-,"42"
?2"+8*E,"4)8%',"&/$,1218%)"2D8%&'%&%$,"12)"0%'-&8/+'2"1%)/E28,-2."78,0."M%8$"&2'"
Clausewitz, Vom Kriege, München 2002, str. 369–372, 591sl., 637–647.
2 John France, Western Warfare in the Age of the Crusades 1000–1300, Ithaca 1999,
4)8."@QSO@KSL"F,=>%/$"78/4)X,=>9"Armies and Warfare in the Middle Ages; The
English Experience, New Haven 1996, str. 57 sl.
K" 78,0."a%'4"]."`/8D8*EE/'9"The Art of Warfare in Western Europe during the Middle
Ages, Woodbridge 1997, str. 1–18.
T" 78,0."e20%V"Z%W%89"`2-%(1%"?82D$/0%),1%"?8&/"18,V%841/"&2-'/9"&f"Vojaška zgodovina,
8/2 (2007), str. 6–126.
84 ! V O J A Š K A Z G O D O V I N A
W2&F$2'%"E'&'$&':3&83@31$>38&6$83%2&]$%18-&'$tal
wars rarely erupted in medieval Europe. Even
the number of decisive battles was relatively small.
/E&"&%B13-&':3&$I#3F'*@3E&$;&6*1*'"%C&$>3%"'*$2E&]3%3&
1*6*'38&h&]:*F:&;B11C&F$2;$%6E&'$&01"BE3]*'+fE&;"mous
argument that war is a continuation of politics
with other means – and usually ended without
"& 6"#$%& I"''13.& )3;$%3& ':3& "8@32'& $;& l6$83%2f& 2"tional
states with a centralised administration and
"2&3;;3F'*@3&IB%3"BF%"'*F&6"F:*23%C-&':3&$%O"2*E"tion
of armed forces was left to rulers or powerful
lords who depended directly on the current limits of
':3*%&;*2"2F*"1&%3E$B%F3E-&':3*%&>$1*'*F"1&>$]3%&"28&
':3&1*6*'"'*$2E&$;&':3&"86*2*E'%"'*@3&ECE'36-&'",*2O&
furthermore consideration of the constraints of the
contemporary traffic and communication system.
5:BE-& 3@32& E$@3%3*O2E& $;& ':3& 6$E'& 83@31$>38&
European countries in the late Middle Ages were
2$'& "I13& '$& 6$I*1*E3& ':3*%& 32'*%3& F">"I*1*'*3E-& IB'&
had to conduct their military operations relying on
E6"11ZE*+38&B2*'E&':"'&]3%3&>"%'1C&%3F%B*'38&':%$BO:&
feudal and private connections and even more so by
:*%*2O&>%$;3EE*$2"1&E$18*3%E&]:$-&$;&F$B%E3-&:"8&'$&
be paid. U
0$2E3dB32'1C-& 6"2C& "B':$%E& F$2F1B838& B2:3E*tatingly
that military skill waned in the Middle
/O3E-&"28&83@31$>38&'$&"&:*O:3%&;$%6&$21C&;%$6&':3&
16 th and the 17 th &F32'B%*3E&$2]"%8.&g3'-&"&':$%$BO:&
examination of primary sources soon reveals that
such a simplified perception is rather questionable. 3
There are two early and relatively well-documented
military operations demonstrating a carefully
elaborated strategy and well-developed capabili-
'*3E&$;&':3&F$2'36>$%"%C&6*1*'"%C&;$%F3E&h&2"631C-&
the Norman conquest of England with the decisive
victory at the Battle of Hastings in 1066 and the
First Crusade. 4 Thanks to more numerous and in-
;$%6"'*@3&E$B%F3E-&*'&*E&>$EE*I13&'$&O"*2&3@32&I3''3%&
insight into the military organisation of the Late
considered to be one of the foundations of military philosophy, although it is, due
to its complicated dialectical method, a very demanding read. Furthermore, this is
made more difficult by unsatisfactory translations and the popularity of abbreviated
editions which unintentionally deviate from the original. This has resulted in
a variety of interpretations and conclusions made by defence analysts and other
researchers, which, as a matter of fact, are not necessarily in accordance with
Clausewitz’s implementations or which intensify them for no reason. The negative
attitude towards medieval warfare is mainly the result of a widely accepted thesis
advocated by modern analysts according to which the highest form of military
operations is represented by the “absolute” war or active conflict in which the
enemy’s military capabilities are decisively destroyed. On the other hand, limited
war has often been treated as an inferior category. Cf. Carl von Clausewitz, Vom
Kriege, München 2002, pp. 369–372, 591 ff., 637–647.
2 John France, Western Warfare in the Age of the Crusades 1000–1300, Ithaca 1999,
??."@QSO@KSL"F,=>%/$"78/4)X,=>9"Armies and Warfare in the Middle Ages; The
English Experience, New Haven 1996, p. 57 ff.
3 Cf. Jans F. Verbruggen, The Art of Warfare in Western Europe during the Middle
Ages, Woodbridge 1997, pp. 1–18.
T" MJ."e20%V"Z%W%89"`2-%(1%"?82D$/0%),1%"?8&/"18,V%841/"&2-'/9",'f"Vojaška zgodovina,
8/2 (2007), pp. 6–126.

podobo vojaške organizacije
v poznem srednjem
veku. Iz tistega
$B4$B#"& -!"!$& -.;%-
03:#I:&0$4"*/:&$&2$#3-=&
0$=$4-=L& /-& 8$& ."#:1-&
tudi slovensko ozemlje.
Podrobnejšo obravnavo
8-& ."81>+-#$& 2$#"I/:& 4:-
#"23$8*-&'$%-I/:'"&'%$P"&
Henrika II. in koroškega
vojvode Henrika v se-
2:%3-& X*"1-#-L& /-& 8$& 4$8:-
'1:& 2%=>3:H& 2& 1:*-=& $4&
ReVT& 4$& ReV\& .& 2:1-/--
!"&$P:3.-2"!"&0%$*-&2:ronskemu
vladarju Cangrandeju
della Scali. 5
J*727,)-7&F"-1)#7&
X$1$3#"87
D!:#$;-&8:&`"3'%"34:&
della Scala v popolni bojni
opremi na nagrobniku v
Veroni
O$'$4/-L&."%"4-&/"*:%-=&8:&#:&'$%-I/-&'%$P&-3&
/$%$I/-&2$#2$4"L&*-*>1"%3-&;:I/-&/%"1#L&2&42"#8:-
*-=&1:*-=&R\(&8*(&80%1&.&21"4"%#:!&@:%$3:L&-!"#$&
dolgo predzgodovino. Vladavina vojvode He-
3%-/"&6$%$I/:'"&8:&#:&.";:1"&80$4B>43$&_&0$&
8!%*-& 80$8$B3:'"& $;:*"L& )"#3="%4"& 5-%$18/:-
'"L&#:&3"81:4-1&B$'"*$&4:4-I;-3$&-3&4$B%:&4%>-
+-38/:& 2:.-(& 5"/I3"& ."0>I;-3"& !>& #:& ."'$*"-
21#"1"&0$!:!B3:&0%:43$8*-L&/-&8:&#-=&#:&4$B%$&
."2:4"1L&/"%&/"+:&+:&3#:'$2&8"!$."2:8*3-&3"stop
na veliki povitezitveni ceremoniji 16. ok-
*$B%"&RVWZ&2&Q:3*2-4>&3"&6$%$I/:!( 6
l:3%-/$2:&"!B-H-#:&8$&+:&.'$4"#&0%:%"81:&1$-
/"13:& $/2-%:L& ."& 3#-=$2$& >%:83-;-*:2& 0"& #:& B-1&
0%-8-1#:3& 0$8:;-& *>4-& 0$& $%$+#>(& @$#"I/:& -./>-
I3#:&8-&#:&1:*"&RVWZL&I:&0%:4&0$2-*:.-*2-#$L&3"B--
%"1&/$*&:4:3&$4&2-43:#I-=&0$2:1#3-/$2&2&81>+B-&
"28*%-#8/:'"& 2$#2$4:& E1B%:=*"L& /-& #:& V(& #>1-#"&
-8*:'"&1:*"&0%-&iy11=:-!>&$41$;-13$&0$%".-1&$4-
8*"21#:3:'"&/%"1#"&E4$1P"&K"88">8/:'"( 7 &K"&*$L&
da so vojvoda Henrik in njegovi bratje prav te-
4"#&3";%*3$&-.B$1#I:2"*-&82$#:&2$#"I/:&.!$'1#--
2$8*-L&/"+:&3#-=$2"&*%'$2-3"&8&8:2:%3$&X*"1-#$(&@&
5 Ti dogodki v slovenskem zgodovinopisju še niso bili celovito obdelani. Na tem me-
4)*"&/$-%"W%>&%$%"+8."F,>*"G24,-*"W%",W+%)'2"?2023"?8,"WD,8%'-*"&,82&."Y%"18%-(,"
?8/E$/+"12'),'E/')2&9"*+/$/V/',>"'%"2D/>"?2>2+,>9"?8,0."F,>%"G24,9"5316&37'!-2)dnji
vek9"Z-*D$-%'%"@AAS9"4)8.":BO::L"H*(%'"G249"7%0/)"?2+"($/0209"&f"8#-39'-!*#!
zgodovino in narodopisje, 2 (1995), str. 222–223.
6 Walter Friedensburg, Die Geschichtsschreiber der deutschen Vorzeit, 14. Jahrhundert,
8, Leipzig 1899, str. 122; Claudia Fräss-Ehrfeld, Geschichte Kärntens, I,
Klagenfurt 1984, str. 365–366.
7 Friedensburg 1899, str. 96, 117–120.
Smiling Cangrande della
Scala in full combat gear on
his tomb in Verona.
Middle Ages. In regard to
':3& N1$@32*"2& '3%%*'$%C-&
one chapter of military
history that deserves a
more thorough examination
are the military operations
of Count Henry II of
K$%*+*"& "28& 4B,3& b32%C&
of Carinthia in Northern
W'"1C-& ]:*F:& FB16*2"'38&
;%$6& QcUS& '$& QcU[& ]*':&
two major offensives
against Cangrande della
NF"1"-&%B13%&$;&G3%$2". 5
The Rule of Duke
Henry of Carinthia
The actions that pushed
b32%C-&0$B2'&$;&K$%*+*"&"28&4B,3&$;&0"%*2':*"-&':3&
'*'B1"%&,*2O&$;&)$:36*"-&*2'$&"&8*E>B'3&]*':&':3&%B13%&
of Verona were the result of a much longer chain of
events. The beginning of Henry Duke of Carinthia’s
rule was promising – after the death of his compe-
'32'&;"':3%-&!3*2:"%8&$;&5C%$1-&:3&%3F3*@38&"&]3"1':C&
inheritance and succeeded good family connections.
This inheritance offered him significant advantages
':"'&:3&]"E&]311&"]"%3&$;-&]:*F:&I3F"63&$I@*$BE&"E&
early as during his knighting ceremony in St. Veit an
83%&K1"2&*2&0"%*2':*"&$2&QR&_F'$I3%&QUVY. 6
Duke Henry’s ambitions soon outgrew local
I$B28"%*3E-& "28& :3& :"8& '$& '",3& B>& "%6E& *2& $%83%&
'$&;B1;*1&':36.&$E38& 7*2O& /8$1;& $;& M"EE"B& *2& ':3& )"''13& $;&
Kq11:3*6&$2&U&eB1C&*2&':3&E"63&C3"%. 7 The fact that
Duke Henry and his brothers were systematically
building up their military capabilities during this
period is proven by their trade with Northern Italy.
P%$6&QUVm&'$&QUVY-&':3C&>B%F:"E38-&*2&"88*'*$2&'$&
$':3%&EB>>1*3E-&F$2E*83%"I13&"6$B2'E&$;&]3">$2E&"28&
5 These events have not yet been thoroughly researched by Slovenian historians. At
this point I would like to thank Dr. Miha Kosi for his substantial assistance in collecting
the primary sources. For a short overview of the contingents participating
in both campaigns, Cf. Miha Kosi, 5316&37'!-2)$%&'!.)(, Ljubljana 1998, pp. 76–77;
H*(%'"G249"7%0/)"?2+"($/0209",'f"8#-39'-!*#!*:3$3.'%3!'%!%#23$39'-&), 2 (1995),
pp. 222–223.
6 Walter Friedensburg, Die Geschichtsschreiber der deutschen Vorzeit, 14. Jahrhundert,
8, Leipzig 1899, p. 122; Claudia Fräss-Ehrfeld, Geschichte Kärntens, I,
Klagenfurt 1984, pp. 365–366.
7 Friedensburg 1899, pp. 96, 117–120.
M I L I T A R Y H I S T O R Y ! 85

1:*-=&RVWkUZ&8$&0$1:'&I*:2-13-=&4%>'-=&4$B%-3&2&
N-%:3H"=&-3&)-1"3>&3"/>0-1-&*>4-&2:;#:&/$1-;--
3:&$%$+#"&-3&/$3#:3-I/:&$0%:!:J&8:4:1L&$8*%$'L&
I;-*$2&-3&$/1:0$2( 8
@& 3"81:43#-=& 1:*-=& #:& 2$#2$4"& l:3%-/& -8/"1&
0%-!:%3:& 0%-1$+3$8*-& ."& 0$1-*-;3$& >2:1#"2-*:2(&
& $/$1-I;-3& _& +:&
"2'>8*"&-8*:'"&1:*"&8:&#:&3"!%:;&;:I/-&0%:8*$1&
izpraznil z umorom Venceslava III. – je Henrik
0%:H:#&3:0%-;"/$2"3$&0$8*"1&%:8:3&0%:*:34:3*&
."&/%$3$(&^:0%"2&8$&'"&3"&^:I/:!&80%2"&4$B%$&
80%:#:1-L&8:&#:&!$%"1&*"/$#&80$0"8*-&.&3:2"%3$-
8*#$&="B8B>%I/:'"&0%$*-3"0"4"L&8"#&#:&/%"1#&E1-
B%:=*&0%:8*$1&3"!:3-1&82$#:!>&8-3>&C>4$1P>(&@&
42$#3-&$P:3.-2-L&/-&!-!$'%:4:&8$4-&!:4&4$B%:&
0%-!:%:& 8%:43#:2:I/:'"& 8*%"*:I/:'"& 3";%*$-
2"3#"L&8$&="B8B>%I/:&8-1:&0$1:*-&ReTk&3"0"41:&
^:I/$& *:%& l:3%-/$2:& /$%$I/:& -3& /%"3#8/:& 0$-
8:8*-(&6$3%"4>&2$3&E>P:38*:-3>L&/-&!>&#:&2$#-
2$4"&l:3%-/&.">0"1&$B%"!B$&^:I/:L&#:&>80:1$&
>B%"3-*-&!$;3$&>*%#:3$&6>*3$&l$%$&-3&*"/$&2&
.";:*/>&.-!:&E1B%:=*"&0%-8-1-*-&/&>!-/>(&5$4"&
3"&6$%$I/:!&-3&6%"3#8/:!&#:&2$#2$4"&4$+-2:1&
popoln poraz. W
D!%*&/%"1#"&E1B%:=*"&#:&0%:/-3-1"&8$2%"+3$-
8*-& -3& $4& "2'>8*"& ReTZ& #:& 1"=/$& l:3%-/& 3:$-
2-%"3$&21"4"1&3"&^:I/:!(&@:34"%&8:&#:&."%"4-&
0%:*-%"3$&0"8-23:'"&2$4:3#"&4%+"2:&$4*>#-1&$4&
0%:B-2"18*2"L&."%"4-&81"B:&0$1-*-;3:&0%:8$#:&0"&
je izgubil še naklonjenost novega nemškega
kralja Henrika VII. Ta je nestabilne razmere na
^:I/:!&-./$%-8*-1&*"/$L&4"&#:&3"&0%:8*$1&0$8"4-1&
svojega sina Janeza Luksemburškega. Henrik
6$%$I/-&#:&2&.";:*/>&1:*"&ReRT&I:&:3/%"*&!$biliziral
svoje sile – s Tirolskega in Koroškega
:3$*:& 0$4& 2$48*2$!& 6$3%"4"& 2$3& E>P:38*:-
-3"L& !:-88:38/-& !:#3-& '%$P& N%-4:%-/& 0"& !>& #:&
0%-I:1&3"&0$!$;&8&STT&*:+/$&$B$%$+:3-!-&2$#"ki.
Kljub temu je do konca leta povsem izgubil
nadzor nad dogajanjem. Prisiljen je bil odsto-
0-*-&-3&8:&>!"/3-*-&$8"!1#:3&-3&$8%"!$;:3(&A%-padniki
luksemburške stranke mu sprva niso
=$*:1-&."'$*$2-*-&3-*-&2"%3:'"&$4=$4"( 10
Henrik Koroški se ni nikoli sprijaznil z iz-
'>B$&/%$3:(&@3$2-;&8:&#:&>*%4-1&3"&6$%$I/:!&
-3&5-%$18/:!&*:%&3"&6%"3#8/:!L&/-&'"&#:&-!:1&2&
."8*"2-L&"&#:&28:&4$&8!%*-&>0$%"B1#"1&/%"1#:28/-&
8 Fräss-Ehrfeld 1984, str. 367.
9 Fräss-Ehrfeld 1984, str. 368–372; Friedensburg 1899, str. 136–147
10 Friedensburg 1899, str. 152–163, 174; Fräss-Ehrfeld 1984, str. 375–376
86 ! V O J A Š K A Z G O D O V I N A
F"@"1%C&,*'L&E"8813E-&E>B%E-&E:*318E&"28&"%6$B%. 8
W2&':3&;$11$]*2O&C3"%E-&4B,3&b32%C&E3"%F:38&;$%&
suitable opportunities to assert his political posi-
'*$2.& W2& QcSR-& :3& 6"%%*38& /22-& 8"BO:'3%& $;& 7*2O&
Wenceslaus II of Bohemia. After a series of events –
in which Wenceslaus III was murdered in August of
':3&E"63&C3"%&"28-&"E&"&F$2E3dB32F3-&':3&)$:36*"2&
throne was left empty – Henry became somewhat
unexpectedly a serious contender to the Bohemian
F%$]2.& W2*'*"11C-& :3& ]"E& ]311& "FF3>'38& *2& )$:36*"-&
but was immediately confronted with the threat of
"&F$B2'3%Z"''"F,&IC&':3&b$BE3&$;&b"IEIB%O-&"E&7*2O&
/1I%3F:'& *2'32838& ':3& ':%$23& ;$%& :*E& E$2-& `B8$1;.&
W2&':3&8$BI13&$;;32E*@3-&]:*F:-&"E&"&6"''3%&$;&;"F'-&
presents a good example of medieval strategic plan-
2*2O-& b"IEIB%O& ;$%F3E& E*6B1'"23$BE1C& "''"F,38&
Bohemia and Henry’s Carinthian and Carniolan es-
'"'3E&*2&':3&EB663%&$;&QcSm.&0$2%"8&@$2&/B;32E'3*2-&
]:$6& b32%C& 32'%BE'38& ]*':& ':3& 83;32F3& )$:36*"-&
6"2"O38&'$&83;328&':3&:3"@*1C&;$%'*;*38&7B'2"&b$%"&
and thus forced Albrecht to withdraw his forces at
':3&I3O*22*2O&$;&':3&]*2'3%.&b$]3@3%-&':3&8B,3&]"E&
defeated in Carinthia and Carniola. V
5:3&:$E'*1*'*3E&E$$2&32838&]*':&':3&83"':&$;&7*2O&
Albrecht and as a result Duke Henry could rule
)$:36*"& ]*':$B'& "2C& 8*E'B%I"2F3E.& b$]3@3%-& :*E&
extremely passive governance estranged the population
and due to his impaired political judgement
:3&1$E'&':3&";;3F'*$2&$;&7*2O&b32%C&GWW.&7*2O&b32%C&
took advantage of the unstable situation in Bohemia
'$&32':%$23&:*E&E$2-&e$:2&$;&DBa36IB%O.&W2&':3&I3-
O*22*2O&$;&QcQS-&b32%C&$;&0"%*2':*"&%36$I*1*E38&:*E&
forces – the units from Tyrol and Carinthia under the
F$66"28&$;&0$2%"8&@$2&/B;32E'3*2.&PB%':3%6$%3-&
the Margrave of Meissen offered him the assistance
$;& RSS& :3"@*1C& "%638& 632Z"'Z"%6E.& g3'-& :3& F$6pletely
lost control of the situation at the end of the
C3"%&"28&]"E&;$%F38&'$&%3E*O2&"28&'$&%3'%3"'-&"1$23&
and disgraced. Luxembourg’s followers did not even
want to grant him safe conduct. 10
Henry of Carinthia never reconciled himself to
the loss of the crown. He reconsolidated in Carinthia
"28&5C%$1&"E&]311&"E&*2&0"%2*$1"-&]:*F:&:3&:318&*2&
6$%'O"O3-&"28&BE38&':3&%$C"1&'*'13&B2'*1&:*E&83"':. 11
W2& ':3& ;$11$]*2O& C3"%E-& :3& "''36>'38& E3@3%"1& '*63E&
'$& %3O"*2& >$]3%& *2& )$:36*"-& C3'-& :*E& >1"2E& ;"*138.&
5:3%3;$%3-& :3& 8*%3F'38& :*E& "E>*%"'*$2E& '$]"%8E&
M$%':3%2& W'"1C-& "& %3O*$2& ]:*F:& ]"E& O3$O%">:*F"11C&
8 Fräss-Ehrfeld 1984, p. 367.
9 Fräss-Ehrfeld 1984, pp. 368–372; Friedensburg 1899, pp. 136–147.
10 Friedensburg 1899, pp. 152–163, 174; Fräss-Ehrfeld 1984, pp. 375–376.
11 Henry’s estates in Carinthia, Carniola and the Windisch Mark are listed in a document
dating from 1311. Hermann Wiessner, Monumenta historica ducatus Carinthiae,
VIII, Klagenfurt 1958, document no. 47.

A$1-*-;3-&.:!1#:2-4&0%$8*$%"L&2&/"*:%:!&8$&0$*:/"1:&2$#"I/:&
dejavnosti Henrika II. Goriškega in Henrika Koroškega proti
Cangrandeju della Scali
naziv. 11 &@&3"81:43#-=&1:*-=&8-&#:&2:;/%"*&0$8/>-
8-1&2%3-*-&$B1"8*&3"&^:I/:!L&2:34"%&8$&3#:'$2-&
3";%*-& 80$41:*:1-(& 9"*$& #:& 82$#:& >0:& 0%:>8!:-
%-1&2&8:2:%3$&X*"1-#$L&3"&$.:!1#:L&/-&!>&#:&B-1$&
':$'%"P8/$&B1-+:&-3&/#:%&#:&/$*&3"81:43-/&)"#-
3="%4"& 5-%$18/:'"& >+-2"1& 2:1-/& >'1:4(& @& 4%>-
':!& -3& *%:*#:!& 4:8:*1:*#>& R\(& 8*(& #:& $B8*$#:;:&
razmerje sil v omenjenem prostoru omajala
"'%:8-23"& 0$1-*-/"& 2:%$38/:'"& 21"4"%#"L& '-B:-
1-3"&`"3'%"34:#"&4:11"&DH"1:L&/-&8-&#:&0%-."4:-
2"1&%".I-%-*-&$B1"8*&3"&A"4$2$L&5%:2-8$&-3&4%>'"&
pomembnejša mesta v okolici. Koroški vojvoda
l:3%-/&#:&2&*"/I3:!&0$1$+"#>&1:*"&ReRe&4-01$-
!"*8/$&0$8%:4$2"1L&8"#&#:&B-1&.:1$&0%-!:%:3&."&
*$L&I:&0$8:B:#&."%"4-&8*"%-=&4%>+-38/-=&2:.-&.&
rodbino Scale. RV Od leta 1314 je bil dejaven
Cangrandejev zaveznik v sklopu gibelinske
0$1-*-/:(&A$81"1&!>&#:&H:1$&YTT&2$#"/$2L&/-&8$&
*2$%-1-&0%2$&$4&I*-%-=&B$#3-=&1-3-#&0$4&`"3'%"3-
4:#:2-!&0$2:1#8*2$!&0%-&D"3&K-H$1>&RV(&P:B%>arja
1318. 13
11 Henrikove posesti na Koroškem, Kranjskem in v Marki popisuje listina iz julija 1311.
Hermann Wiessner, Monumenta historica ducatus Carinthiae, VIII, Klagenfurt
1958, listina št. 47.
12 Fräss-Ehrfeld 1984, str. 381–383.
13 MHDC VIII, listina št. 401, s. l., 1318 februar 12.
Political map of the area where military campaigns of Henry II
$;&K$%*+*"&"28&4B,3&b32%C&$;&0"%*2':*"&"O"*2E'&0"2O%"283&8311"&
Scala took place.
closer to him and where he was highly esteemed as
the successor of Meinhard of Tyrol. In the second and
the third decade of the 14 th &F32'B%C-&':3&3a*E'*2O&O3$political
system in the area was shaken by the ag-
O%3EE*@3&>$1*FC&$;&':3&%B13%&$;&G3%$2"-&':3&K:*I311*23&
0"2O%"283&8311"&NF"1"-&]:$&*2'32838&'$&E>%3"8&:*E&
>$]3%& '$& H"8B"-& 5%3@*E$& "28& $':3%& E*O2*;*F"2'& F*'-
*3E& *2& ':3& %3O*$2.& W2& ':*E& F$2'3a'-& 4B,3& b32%C& $;&
0"%*2':*"&E3%@38&"E&"&8*>1$6"'*F&638*"'$%&*2&QcQc-&
as he was the appropriate choice for this task due to
his old family connections with the Scala family. QU
N*2F3&QcQ[-&:3&]"E&"2&"F'*@3&"11C&$;&0"2O%"283&*2&
his Ghibelline policy. He even provided 500 soldiers
who formed the first of four combat formations
B283%& 0"2O%"283fE& F$66"28& "'& N"2& M*F$1$& $2& QU&
February 1318. 13
Count Henry II of Gorizia against the Ruler
of Verona
W2&':3E3&'*63E-&%3O*$2"1&>$1*'*F"1&%31"'*$2E&]3%3&"Ogravated.
Cangrande led his forces to an attack on
':3&H"8B"2&3E'"'3E&*2&43F36I3%&QcQm.&)C&P3I%B"%C-&
12 Fräss-Ehrfeld 1984, pp. 381–383.
13 MHDC VIII, document no. 401, s. l., 1318 February 12.
M I L I T A R Y H I S T O R Y ! 87

_$1)3#)&81$N&F"-1)#&UU.&41$5)&,*7271+6&
J"1$-"
@&*-8*:!&$B4$B#>&8$&8:&%:'-$3"13:&0$1-*-;3:&
razmere zaostrile. Cangrande je decembra
1317 svojo vojsko povedel v napad na padovan-
8/:&0$8:8*-(&O$&P:B%>"%#"&#:&."2.:1&)$38:1-H:&-3&
Este ter Padovo prisilil v mirovni sporazum. 14
@:34"%&8-&#:&8&*:!-&>80:=-&$4*>#-1&."2:.3-/:L&/-&
so imeli vsak svoje cilje. Koroški vojvoda ni bil
:4-3"&2:1-/"&$8:B3$8*&-.&2.=$43$"108/:'"&0%$-
8*$%"L&8$4:1>#$;"&2&*:!&80$%>(&@"3#&#:&I:&B$1#&
>80:I3$&0$8:':1&*>4-&3#:'$2&8$%$43-/L&'$%-I/-&
'%$P&l:3%-/&XX(&6$*&2:%#:*3$&3"#>80:I3:#I-&;1"3&
"1B:%*-38/:& 2:#:& i$%-I/-=& 8-& #:& 2$#"I/:& -./>-
I3#:&3"B-%"1&+:&$4&!1"4$8*-L&28"#&$4&1:*"&RVZWL&
/$&#:&2$4-1&'$%-I/$&:3$*$&3"&0$!$;&0"*%-"%=>&
v vojni z Benetkami. 15 & Q*:1-& B-& '"& 1"=/$& !:4&
3"#B$1#&3"4"%#:3:&2$#8/$2$4#:L&/-&8$&2&0$.3:!&
8%:43#:!&2:/>&-.="#"1-&-.&81$2:38/:'"&:*3-;3:ga
prostora. 16 &h:&$4&."43#-=&1:*&Re(&8*(&#:&2$4-1&
"!B-H-$.3$&:/80"3.-23$&0$1-*-/$L&$4&1:*"&ReRV&
kot zaveznik Cangrandeja della Scale. Nasle-
43#:&1:*$&#:&`"3'%"34:#"&_&$;-*3$&0%:428:!&3"&
0$B>4$& $'1:#8/:'"& 0"*%-"%="& _& 2$#"I/$& 0$4-
0%1& 3"& 0$=$4>& 0%$*-& 5%:2-8>& -3& A"4$2-L& /-& 8:&
#:&/$3;"1&.&.!"'$&0%-&)$3*"'3"3-&#>1-#"&ReRe(&
@&3"81:43#-=&1:*-=&#:&I:&3:/"#/%"*&0%-8/$;-1&3"&
0$!$;&`"3'%"34:#>J&$/*$B%"&ReRS&0%-&@-H:3.-L&
decembra 1317 pa se je s 300 oklepniki udele-
+-1&0$=$4"&3"&)$38:1-H:( 17
Ob koncu leta 1318 se je kralj Friderik Lepi
$41$;-1L&4"&3"&0$1$+"#&4%+"23:'"&2-/"%#"&2&5%:-
2-8>&-3&`$3:'1-"3>&0$8*"2-&l:3%-/"&i$%-I/:'"L&
/"%&#:&>%:83-;-1&2&3"81:43#-=&!:8:H-=( 18 Ta po-
*:."&#:&%".>!1#-2$&%".B>%-1"&`"3'%"34:#"L&/-&#$&
#:&$B;>*-1&/$*&0$8:'&2&82$#:&-3*:%:83$&$B!$;#:(&
@:34"%&#:&2&'$%-I/:!&'%$P>&3"I:1&3"80%$*3-/"L&
/-&'"&#:&2&2$#"I/-&2:I;-3-&$B;>*3$&0%:/"I"1(&
`"3'%"34:&#:&3"#0%:#&>8!:%-1&!$;"3&3"0"4&
3"& A"4$2$(& 6$*& 0$%$;"& @-11"3-L& 8$& 2:%$38/:&
8-1:&4$&0$1:*#"&ReVT&!:8*$&$B1:'"1:&+:&2:;&/$*&
1:*$& 43-& .& V(TTT& /$3#:3-/-& -3& RT(TTT& 0:I"/-(&
A%:4!:8*#"&A"4$2:&8$&."2.:1-L&$B.-4"3$&!:8*$&
0"& $B/$1-1-& .& >*%#:3-!-& 0$1$+"#-& *:%& *"/$& 0%:-
0%:;-1-&4$*$/&$/%:0-*:2&-3&1$'-8*-;3:&0$40$%:(&
14" 7>,$,?"5/'8P"C,=14)//+9"Villani’s Chronicle, s. l. 1906, str. 438.
15" 7/)/8"u),>9"Goriški grofje ter njihovi ministeriali in militi v Istri in na Kranjskem,
Ljubljana 1994, str. 215.
16"k"&2-%(1,>"W02E$-,&24),>"E82J2&"#28,(1,>"?8,0."u),>"@AAT9"4)8."QRBOQ@!.
17" 7,2"7%4=>,',9"Storia del Friuli, II, Udine 1935, str. 216, 219.
18 MHDC VIII, listina št. 473, Gradec, 1319 april 3.
88 ! V O J A Š K A Z G O D O V I N A
he occupied Monselice and Este and forced Padua to
agree on a peace agreement. 14 &g3'-&0"2O%"283fE&EBFcess
alienated his allies who pursued their own objectives.
The Carinthian duke was not the only leading
personality from the eastern-alpine area participat-
*2O& *2& ':*E& 8*E>B'3.& b*E& %31"'*@3-& 0$B2'& b32%C& WW& $;&
K$%*+*"-& *2'3%;3%38& *2& ':*E& F$2;1*F'& "E& ]311-& O"*2*2O&
even more success. As probably the most successful
636I3%&$;&':3&/1I3%'*23&1*23&$;&':3&0$B2'E&$;&K$%*+*"-&
:3&O"*238&6*1*'"%C&3a>3%*32F3&;%$6&:*E&3"%1C&C$B':-&
"'&13"E'&;%$6&QUYV&$2-&]:32&:3&138&K$%*+*"fE&;$%F3E&
to assist the Aquileian Patriarch in the war against
Venice. 15 He may also be considered one of the most
talented medieval commanders to come from the
Slovenian ethnic region. 16 During the last years of the
Qc':& F32'B%C-& :3& 138& "2& "6I*'*$BE& 3a>"2E*@3& >$1*FC&
"28&I3F"63&"2&"11C&$;&0"2O%"283&8311"&NF"1"&*2&QcQU.&
W2& ':3& ;$11$]*2O& C3"%-& >%$I"I1C& $2& ':3& *2*'*"'*@3& $;&
':3& H"'%*"%F:-& :3& EB>>$%'38& 0"2O%"283fE& F"6>"*O2&
against Treviso and Padua which ended in victory
"'&!$2'"O2"2"&*2&eB1C&QcQc.&W2&':3&;$11$]*2O&C3"%E-&
he once more assisted Cangrande in his endeavours:
':"'&*E&*2&_F'$I3%&QcQR&"'&G*F32+"&"28&*2&43F36I3%&
QcQm-&]:32&:3&>"%'*F*>"'38&*2&':3&F"6>"*O2&"O"*2E'&
Monselice with 300 armoured soldiers. 17
/'&':3&328&$;&QcQY-&7*2O&P%383%*F,&':3&P"*%&83F*8-
38&'$&">>$*2'&b32%C&$;&K$%*+*"&"E&W6>3%*"1&G*F"%&$;&
5%3@*E$& "28& 0$23O1*"2$-& ]:*F:& :3& "1E$& >B'& *2'$& 3;fect
in the following months. 18 This move irritated
Cangrande who felt it as interference into his sphere
$;&*2'3%3E'.&b$]3@3%-&*2&':3&F$B2'&:3&;$B28&"2&$>>$nent
who surpassed his military skills.
P*%E'-& 0"2O%"283& 1"B2F:38& "& 6"#$%& "''"F,& $2&
H"8B".& /E& %3>$%'38& IC& G*11"2*-& G3%$23E3& ;$%F3E& "'-
'"F,38&':3&F*'C&"28&IC&':3&EB663%&$;&QcUS&:"8&"1-
%3"8C& I3E*3O38& *'& ;$%& 6$%3& ':"2& "& C3"%& ]*':& U-SSS&
:$%E3632& "28& QS-SSS& ;$$'E$18*3%E.& 5:3& EBIB%IE& $;&
H"8B"&]3%3&$FFB>*38&"28&':3&F*'C&*'E31;-&EB%%$B2838&
IC& "& 83;32E*@3& ]"11-& ]"E& 32F*%F138& IC& ;$%'*;*38& >$E*tions
preventing the inflow of reinforcements and
logistic supplies. The Veronese army was so large
that it had to be accommodated in as many as three
camps. QV A long-lasting attack exhausted the defend-
3%E&"28-&"E&"&F$2E3dB32F3-&':3&EB%%3283%&$;&':3&'$]2&
]"E& E$$2& '$& I3& 3a>3F'38.& g3'-& 0$B2'& b32%C& "EEB%38&
immediate and effective assistance. US By the begin-
14" 7>,$,?"5/'8P"C,=14)//+9"Villani’s Chronicle, s. l. 1906, p. 438.
15" 7/)/8"u),>9"Goriški grofje ter njihovi ministeriali in militi v Istri in na Kranjskem,
Ljubljana 1994, p. 215.
16" UD2*)"0,$,)%8P"=%?%D,$,),/4"2J")>/"M2*')4"2J"#28,W,%"MJ."u),>"@AAT9"??."QRBOQ@!.
17" 7,2"7%4=>,',9"Storia del Friuli, II, Udine 1935, pp. 216, 219.
18 MHDC VIII, document No. 473, Graz, 1319 April 3.
19 Wicksteed 1906, p. 445.
20" ]8\446c>8J/$+"@AST9"??."KSQOKSK9"7%4=>,',"@AK!9"?."Q@AL"

@:%$38/"&2$#8/"&#:&B-1"&*$1-/I3"L&4"&8$&#$&3"-
8*"3-1-&/"%&2&*%:=&*"B$%-=( RW &A$&4$1'$*%"#3-=&3"-
0"4-=&8$&B-1-&B%"3-1H-&+:&-.;%0"3-L&."*$&#:&B-1$&
/!"1>&0%-;"/$2"*-&0"4:H&!:8*"(&E&'%$P&l:3%-/&
#-!&#:&$B1#>B-1&=-*%$&-3&>;-3/$2-*$&0$!$;( VT Do
.";:*/"&1:*"&ReVT&#:&2&5%:2-8>&.&-3*:3.-23-!-&
0%-0%"2"!-&2&/%"*/:!&;"8>&.B%"1&2:1-/$L&4$B%$&
$0%:!1#:3$&2$#8/$&3"#:!3-I/-=&/$3#:3-/$2&-3&
0:IH:2(&K"#0%:#&8:&!>&#:&0%-4%>+-1&i%:-P&^%:*:ški
iz Slovenske marke z 80 oklepniki in prav
*$1-/$& 8"!$8*%:1H-L& /!"1>& ."*:!& 0"& I:& 4%>'-&
/$3*-3':3*-(&K"&0$=$4>&0%$*-&`"3'%"34:#>&8$&
'"& 0$40%1-& >'1:43-& 01:!-;-& -.& "28*%-#8/:'"& -3&
ogrskega prostora. Ob popisu je vojska pod
l:3%-/$2-!&0$2:1#8*2$!&I*:1"&R\kk&*:+/$&$B$-
%$+:3-=& /$3#:3-/$2L& R\Ve& 8"!$8*%:1H:2L& kTT&
1$/$8*%:1H:2& -3& I:& 3:.3"3$L& "& 2:1-/$& I*:2-1$&
0:I"/$2& -3& 0$40$%3-=& :3$*( VR Med pomemb-
3:#I-!-&/$3*-3':3*-&#:&c1%-/&p"18::&0%-80:2"1&
RTT& $/1:03-/$2L& RTT& 8"!$8*%:1H:2& -.& E28*%-#:&
-3&Q*"#:%8/:&*:%&VTT&$'%8/-=&1$/$8*%:1H:2(&6$3-
*-3':3*&B"3"&,"B$3-Ü"&#:&I*:1&RTT&$/1:03-/$2L&
RTT& 8"!$8*%:1H:2& -3& YT& 1$/$8*%:1H:2(& E1B:%*&
-3& )"#3="%4& M%*:3B>%I/"& 8*"& 0%-#:.4-1"& 8& YT&
$/1:03-/-& -3& YT& 8"!$8*%:1H-L& :3"/$& /$*& l>'$&
O:2-38/-L&/-&0"&#:&-!:1&0$1:'&*:'"&I:&RTT&0:-
I"/$2(&5>%#"I/-&8$&0%-80:2"1-&RV&$/1:03-/$2&-3&
RV&8"!$8*%:1H:2L&$'1:#8/-&0"*%-"%=&0$&RTT&$/1:-
03-/$2& -3& 8*%:1H:2(& O"1:;& 3"#2:;#-& /$3*-3':3*&
je seveda organiziral sam Henrik Goriški: iz
^:4"4"L&$B!$;#"&5%:2-8"L&i$%-H:L&B1#"3:&-3&
28:=& 4%>'-=& 0$8:8*-& #:& .B%"1& YTT& $/1:03-/$2L&
500 samostrelcev in »nešteto« pešakov. VV
Vsak oklepnik je s seboj pripeljal tri konje:
B$#3:'"& ."8:L& #:.43:'"& ."& 8"!$8*%:1H"& -3& I:&
%$3H-3"L Ve & 2:34"%& B%:.& 1$/$8*%:1H:2L& /-& 8$& 8:&
.B%"1-&2&5%:2-8>&0%:4&B$+-;:!(&@&H:1$*-&#:&B-1$&
2&2$#8/-&ZeST&/$3#:2&%".1-;3-=&2%8*&*:%&2:;&/$*&
eTT&2-*:.$2(&MH:3:&0%-B1-+3$&8$;"83-=&"1-&3:-
/$1-/$& 0$.3:#I-=& 0-8H:2L& 0$& /"*:%-=& 3"#& B-& 8:&
8/>03"&!$;&28:=&B$#3-=&:3$*&'-B"1"&$4&3:/"#&
2:;& /$*& ZTTT& 4$& RT(TTT& !$+L& *$%:#& 3-8$& B-1:&
0%:*-%"3:(&@&0%2-=&43:=&1:*"&ReVT&#:&B-1&'$%-I/-&
'%$P& 2:%#:*3$& +:& 0$28:!& 0%-0%"21#:3& 3"& 80$-
0"4L& 2:34"%& B-*/:& *:4"#& I:& 3-& B-1$(& @& *"/I3-=&
%".!:%"=&#:&l:3%-/&6$%$I/-&$B&/$3H>&#"3>"%#"&
spet preizkusil svoje diplomatske sposobnosti
19 Wicksteed 1906, str. 445.
20" ]8\446c>8J/$+"@AST9"4)8."KSQOKSK9"7%4=>,',"@AK!9"4)8."Q@AL"2)/"E28,(1/E%"E82J%."
22 Azzoni Avogadro 1760, str. 196–199.
23 Cenejši jezdni konj, primeren za transport.
2*2O& $;& QcUS-& :3& 6"83& *2'32E*@3& >%3>"%"'*$2E& *2&
Treviso and gathered a large and well-equipped army
of mercenary horsemen and infantry soldiers. He was
;*%E'&#$*238&IC&K%3*;&@$2&`3B'32I3%O&9á%3'3(=&;%$6&':3&
Windisch Mark with 80 armoured soldiers and the
E"63& 2B6I3%& $;& F%$EEI$]632.& N$$2-& $':3%& F$2'*2-
O32'E&;$11$]38.&W2&:*E&F"6>"*O2&"O"*2E'&0"2O%"283-&
Count Henry was supported by distinguished noblemen
from the Austrian and Hungarian lands.
b32%CfE& "%6C& F$B2'38& "E& 6"2C& "E& Q-[mm& :3"@*1C&
"%638& :$%E3632-& Q-[Uc& F%$EEI$]632-& mSS& "%F:3%E&
"28&"2&B2,2$]2-&C3'&F$2E*83%"I13&2B6I3%&$;&*2;"2try
soldiers and support units. UQ As one of the most
*6>$%'"2'& F$2'*2O32'E-& k1%*F:& @$2& j"1E33& F$2'%*I-
B'38&QSS&"%6$B%38&E$18*3%E-&QSS&F%$EEI$]632&;%$6&
/BE'%*"& "28& N'C%*"& "28& USS& bB2O"%*"2& 6$B2'38&
archers. The contingent of Ban UU & )"I$2*à& F$2E*E'38&
$;&QSS&"%6$B%38&E$18*3%E-&QSS&F%$EEI$]632&"28&XS&
"%F:3%E.& /1I3%'& "28& !3*2:"%8& @$2& _%'32IB%O& F"63&
on horseback followed by 50 armoured soldiers and
XS& F%$EEI$]632.& $%"%C& $%& EBIE3dB32'& ]%*'3%E-& "FF$%8*2O& '$&
]:*F:&':3&32'*%3&E*+3&$;&':3&F$6I"'&B2*'E&"6$B2'38&
B>&'$&">>%$a*6"'31C&Y-SSS&'$&QS-SSS&632-&]3%3&2$'&
3a"OO3%"'38.&/'&':3&I3O*22*2O&$;&QcUS-&':3&0$B2'&$;&
K$%*+*"&]"E&>%$I"I1C&"1%3"8C&>%3>"%38&;$%&"&F$2;1*F'-&
C3'&"&I"''13&8*8&2$'&'",3&>1"F3.&W2&':*E&F$2'3a'-&b32%C&
of Carinthia put his diplomatic skills again to the test
by taking on the role of a mediator. He succeeded in
%3F$2F*1*2O&':3&$>>$232'E-&"'&13"E'&;$%&"&E:$%'&>3%*$8&
of time. U[
21 The number mentioned at the end of the list of the total number of soldiers. It is
possible that the category of archers includes also some of the infantry of the
Count of Gorizia.
22 Civil governor.
23 Azzoni Avogadro 1760, pp. 196–199.
24 Azzoni Avogari 1760, p. 199. Fräss-Ehrfeld 1984, pp. 382–383; MHDC VIII, document
no. 499, s. l., 1319 September; document no. 517, Graz, 1320 January 23.
M I L I T A R Y H I S T O R Y ! 89

v vlogi posrednika. Nasprotnika mu je uspelo
0$!-%-*-L&;:0%"2&1:&.";"83$( V\
`"3'%"34:& 28::3$& 3-& 0%:/-3-1& $B1:'"3#"L&
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$0"+:3$&28*$0-*-&2&!:8*$&.&2$#8/$L&/"*:%:&#:4%$&
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*$;3"L&*$&0$!:3-L&4"&8$&8:&.B%"3:&l:3%-/$2:&
sile od prvotnega stanja konec prejšnjega leta
+:&$B;>*3$&.!"3#I"1:&"1-&0"&#:&'%$P&$0:%"H-#$&
izpeljal le s svojim kontingentom in morebiti
I:&$B&0$!$;-&p"18::#:2:'"&80%:!8*2"(&Ve(&"2gusta
so njuni najemniki skupaj z mestno po-
8"4/$& 0%-0%"2-1-& 3:3"4:3& -.0"4(& A%:8:3:;:3"&
2:%$38/"&2$#8/"L&3:0%-0%"21#:3"&3"&B-*/$L&/1#>B&
82$#-&2:1-/$8*-&3-&!$'1"&."4%+"*-&3"0"4"(&i$%--
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4:1&3#:'$2-=&2$#"/$2&0"&8$&.!"'$2"1H-&8/>0"#&8&
plenom zajeli v veronskem taboru. VS
/$>$2&,$+,$2"&F"-1)#7&*"57&ALMB
@&.";:*/>&8:0*:!B%"&ReVR&#:&N%-4:%-/&B-1&I:&:3:'"&0$40$%3-/"L&/-&2&3"80%$*#>&.&
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23$2-;&$'%$+"*-&A"4$2$(&@$#2$4"&l:3%-/&#:&."&
."2"%$2"3#:& !:8*"& +:& 3$2:!B%"& 0$81"1& 0%2$&
:3$*$& VTT& *:+/$& $B$%$+:3-=& /$3#:3-/$2& 0$4&
vodstvom izkušenega poveljnika Konrada von
E>P:38*:-3"L&3"81:43#:&1:*$&I:&\TT(&D0$!1"4-&
ReVV&8$&8:&0$#"2-1-&*>4-&3$2-&0$8/>8-&4-01$!"*-
8/:& %:I-*2:(& N%-4:%-/& E-& ]:*F:& F$2sisted
of 500 heavily armed horsemen from Friuli
"28&K3%6"2&E'"'3E-&]*':$B'&I3*2O&2$'*F38. UX If this
2B6I3%& *E& "FFB%"'3-& b32%CfE& ;$%F3E& ]3%3& F$2E*83%-
"I1C&%38BF38&F$6>"%38&'$&':3&*2*'*"1&E*+3&"'&':3&328&
of the previous year or it may signify that the count
wanted to conduct this operation only with his own
contingent and with the assistance of Walsee’s escort.
_2&Uc&/BOBE'-&':3*%&63%F32"%*3E&'$O3':3%&]*':&':3&
Paduan garrison took positions around the city and
>%3>"%38&"&EB8832&F:"%O3.&5:3&G3%$23E3&"%6C-&EB%-
>%*E38&"28&B2>%3>"%38-&F$B18&2$'&83;C&':3&"EE"B1'.&
Henry’s forces routed the Veronese and inflicted great
losses on them. Cangrande was wounded in the battle
and could hardly escape to Monselice. A great
number of his soldiers was captured by the victorious
side together with the rich booty in the Veronese
camp. UR
The Campaign of Duke Henry in 1324
/'&':3&I3O*22*2O&$;&N3>'36I3%&QcUQ-&P%383%*F,&':3&
Fair offered the position of the state vicar of Padua to
Duke Henry of Carinthia. Um Cangrande lost another
$;& :*E& EB>>$%'3%E-& ]:$& *2& F$2'%"E'& '$& ':3& 0$B2'& $;&
K$%*+*"-& ]"E& 2$'& "& E,*11;B1& E'%"'3O*E'-& C3'& 8*E>$E38&
of great financial assets. Hoping to avenge them-
E31@3E-&':3&G3%$23E3&"O"*2&E'"%'38&'$&':%3"'32&H"8B".&
W2&M$@36I3%-&4B,3&b32%C&E32'&':3&;*%E'&B2*'&$;&USS&
heavily armed horsemen under the command of the
experienced Conrad von Aufenstein to protect the
city and in the following year another unit of 400
'%$$>E.&W2&':3&E>%*2O&$;&QcUU-&E3@3%"1&"''36>'E&]3%3&
made to find diplomatic solutions. Frederick the Fair
authorised Henry to negotiate with Cangrande and
':3&F*'*+32E. UY &g3'-&':3E3&3283"@$B%E&'$&>%$6$'3&>3"F3&
;"*138-& "28& "%638& *2FB%E*$2E& F$2'*2B38& '$& E:",3&
Verona. These constant conflicts affected Henry’s fi-
2"2F*"1&"EE3'E&E3@3%31C-&"E&':3&F$E'E&$;&':3&]"%&O%3"'1C&
surpassed the income generated by Paduan estates. UV
25 There is an obvious discrepancy in Villani’s report – the author maintains that
`/82'/4/"J28=/4">%+"=20?$/)/$P"/'=,8=$/+"7%+*%"%'+"?82)/=)/+"%$$"/')8%'=/4",')2"
the city. On the other hand, they did not notice the arrival of the forces led by
the Count of Gorizia. Thus, Villani perhaps exaggerated on the effectiveness of
Cangrande’s encirclement. On the other hand, the possibility cannot be excluded
that, as a result of negligence, the besiegers failed to guard a certain portion of the
perimeter.
26 Wicksteed 1906, pp. 446–7.
27 MHDC VIII, document no. 593, Judenburg, 1321 September 5; document no. 594,
Judenburg, 1321 September 6.
28 MHDC VIII, document no. 614, Brixen, 1322 March 30.
29 Fräss-Ehrfeld 1984, p. 384.

$8-%$!"I-1-&l:3%-/$2$&B1"'"#3$L&8"#&8$&8*%$I/-&
."&2$#8/$2"3#:&!$;3$&0%:8:'"1-&0%-=$4/:&8&0"-
4$2"38/-=&0$8:8*-( VW 7. aprila je koroški vojvo-
4"&$8*"1&B%:.&0$!:!B3:'"&."2:.3-/"&-3&$41-;-
3:'"&2$#8/$2$4#:L&'$%-I/:'"&'%$P"&l:3%-/"L&/-&
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8%;3:'"&3"0"4"(&D*%"=&0%:4&`"3'%"34:#:!&#:&
B-1&2&5%:2-8>&*"/$&!$;"3L&4"&8$&!:I;"3-&$B1"8*&
*"/$#&-.%$;-1-&'%$P$2:!>&8-3>L&2:34"%&#:&*:4"#&
realno vodenje obrambe v celoti pripadlo Henriku
Koroškemu. 30
@-8$/-& 8*%$I/-& $B%"!B:& 0%:4& @:%$3;"3-& 8$&
2$#2$4$&l:3%-/"&0%:0%-;"1-L&4"&#:&0$8/>8-1&80$%&
rešiti s tveganim spopadom na bojnem polju.
O:H:!B%"&ReVe&8:&#:&2&^:4"4>&8:I:1&8&N%-4:%--
/$!&3-#"&0%-I1"&2&
5%:2-8$(&h:&2&O%"28/-&4$1-3-&#:&0$2.%$;-1"&3:/"#&
I/$4:&0$4:+:18/:!>&0%:B-2"18*2>L&3"*$&0"&4$dobra
opustošila Furlanijo in okolico Trevisa
do Mester. eV
A%-=$4&*"/$&!$;3-=&8-1&#:&2&@:%$3-&0$2.%$-
;-1& %".B>%#:3#:(& `"3'%"34:& 8:& 2:%#:*3$& 3-/$1-&
3-& 3"!:%"2"1& %:83$& 80$0"8*-& .& 3#-!-L& *:!2:;&
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4-3$&4:&K$'"%$1"L&podesta&2&@-H:3.-L&#:&2&0%2-&
polovici junija odpotoval k vojvodi Henriku in
0$8/>I"1&4$8:;-&0%:!-%#:(&5"/$&!>&#:&28"#&."&
3:/"#&*:43$2&>80:1$&$41$+-*-&0%$4$%&8$2%"+3-=&
sil. 33 & l:3%-/& 6$%$I/-& -3& M*$& E28*%-#8/-& 8*"& 0$&
*:!&0%:!$%>&VR(&#>3-#"&28*$0-1"&2&A"4$2$(&5:-
4"#& 8$& *>4-& 0$0-8"1-& 3#>3:& 3"#:!3-I/:& :3$*:L&
."*$&1"=/$&3"&0$41"'-&$=%"3#:3-=&4$/>!:3*$2&
4$B%$& %:/$38*%>-%"!$& 28"#& 4:1& 8-1L& 8& /"*:%-!-&
8*"&0$8/>I"1"&>3-;-*-&2:%$38/:'"&0$*:3*"*"(
Osnovne sile vojvode Henrika je tvorilo
3"#!"3#&ReSZ&*:+/$&$B$%$+:3-=&/$3#:3-/$2&-3&
29 Fräss-Ehrfeld 1984, str. 384.
30 MHDC VIII, listina št. 660, s. l., 1323 april 24.
31 MHDC VIII, listina št. 684, s. l., 1323 december.
32 MHDC VIII, listina št. 722, s. l., 1324 konec maja; listina št. 723, Treviso, 1324 junij
3.; listina št. 777, Salzburg, 1325 maj 16.
33 MHDC VIII, listina št. 726, s. l., 1324 sredina junija.
_2&m&/>%*1-&':3&4B,3&$;&0"%*2':*"&1$E'&:*E&*6>$%'"2'&
"11C&"28&$B'E'"28*2O&F$66"283%-&':3&0$B2'&b32%C&
$;& K$%*+*"-& ]:$& EB88321C& 8*38-& >%$I"I1C& 8B3& '$& "&
heart attack. The fear of Cangrande was so great in
5%3@*E$&':"'&':3&F*'*+32E&*6638*"'31C&F$2;3%%38&>$]-
3%&'$&':3&F$B2'fE&B283%"O3&E$2.&M3@3%':313EE-&"'&':"'&
*2E'"2'-&83;32F3&]"E&"F'B"11C&F"%%*38&$B'&IC&b32%C&
of Carinthia. 30
As a result of the high costs associated with the
83;32F3& "O"*2E'& ':3& G3%$23E3& "%6C-& 4B,3& b32%C&
decided to try to settle the conflict with a risky en-
O"O3632'& $2& ':3& I"''13;*318.& W2& 43F36I3%& QcUc-& :3&
met Frederick the Fair in Cividale del Friuli who
approved the operation and also agreed to support
it. 31 &W2&':3&EB663%&$;&QcU[-&"&1"%O3&"%6C&O"':3%38&
in Padua which was formally commanded by the
/BE'%*"2&4B,3&_''$&"28&4B,3&b32%C&$;&0"%*2':*".&
g3'-&':3&F"6>"*O2&]"E&*2&;"F'&6"*21C&$%O"2*E38&IC&
the latter. The first contingent that arrived in the city
was composed of 400 horsemen under the command
of Conrad von Aufenstein. He was followed by a fair-
1C&B28*EF*>1*238&F$%3&$;&':3&"%6C-&]:*F:&"%%*@38&*2&
5%3@*E$&$2&c&eB23.&4B%*2O&':3*%&6"%F:-&':3C&F"BE38&
damage to the population in the Drau (Drava) val-
13C-&"28&;*2"11C&%"@"O38&':%$BO:&P%*B1*&"28&':3&EB%roundings
of Treviso and Mestre. cU
The arrival of such strong forces must have caused
O%3"'& F$66$'*$2& *2& G3%$2".& H%$I"I1C-& 0"2O%"283&
23@3%&*2'32838&'$&E3%*$BE1C&$>>$E3&':36-&IB'&*2E'3"8&
'%*38&'$&E'"11&':3*%&"8@"2F3.&b*E&F$2;*8"2'-&)"*1"%8*2$&
83&M$O"%$1"-&>$83E'"&*2&G*F32+"-&E3'&$B'&'$&':3&8B,3&
in the first half of June and tried to negotiate a
'%BF3.&5:BE-&:3&EBFF33838&'$&831"C&':3&I%3",':%$BO:&
of the enemy forces for at least a few weeks. 33 Henry
$;&0"%*2':*"&"28&_''$&$;&/BE'%*"&6"2"O38&'$&32'3%&
H"8B"&";'3%&':*E&'%BF3&$2&UQ&eB23.&/'&':"'&'*63-&"&1*E'&
was drawn up of their mercenary forces. These documents
now enable us to reconstruct at least a part
of the structure of the army that tried to destroy the
Veronese potentate.
5:3&F$%3&$;&4B,3&b32%CfE&;$%F3E&F$2E*E'38&$;&Q-cRY&
heavily armed horsemen and 415 crossbowmen. 34
/FF$%8*2O&'$&F$2'36>$%"%C&%3>$%'E-&':3&32'*%3&"%6C&
F$2E*E'38&$;&U-SSS&:3"@*1C&"%638&"%6$B%38&E$18*3%E-&
30 MHDC VIII, document no. 660, s. l., 1323 April 24.
31 MHDC VIII, document no. 684, s. l., 1323 December.
32 MHDC VIII, document no. 722, s. l., 1324 end of June; document no. 723, Treviso,
1324 June 3.; document no. 777, Salzburg, 1325 May 16.
33 MHDC VIII, document no. 726, s. l., 1324 mid-June.
34 Considering the fact that the exact number of soldiers in certain detachments is
not stated, and it is assumed that each of the detachments included at least one
heavily armed horseman or archer. The total number listed in the registering book
amounts up to 1,330 heavily armed soldiers and 294 archers, which is possibly a
result of a calculation mistake. Josef Riedmann, Die Beziehungen der Grafen und
Landesfürsten von Tirol zu Italien bis zum Jahre 1335, Wien 1977, p. 546.
M I L I T A R Y H I S T O R Y ! 91

\RY& 8"!$8*%:1H:2L 34 & 0$& 8$;"83-=& 0$%$;-1-=& 0"&
#:&H:1$*3"&2$#8/"&$B8:'"1"&VTTT&*:+/$&$B$%$-
+:3-=&$/1:03-/$2L&VTT&$'%8/-=&1$/$8*%:1H:2&3"&
/$3#-=L&ZTT&8"!$8*%:1H:2L&kTTT&8>1-;"%#:2&*:%&
\TTT& 1"+#:& $B$%$+:3-=& /$3#:3-/$2& -3& /!:*$2&
$.-%$!"& 0$!$+3-=& :3$*( 35 & 5"& 8:I*:2:/L& 8/>-
03$&R\(TTT&2$#"/$2L&#:&!$%4"&2-4:*-&0%:2-8$/L&
2:34"%& #:& *%:B"& >0$I*:2"*-L& 4"& 3:& '%:& 1:& ."&
0"2I"13$& $H:3$& /%$3-8*"L& *:!2:;& ."& "4!-3--
8*%"*-23-& 0$4"*:/(& D0%:#:!1#-2:#I-& 0$8*"3:L& ;:&
'"&0%-!:%#"!$&8&0$4"*/-&$&8-1"=&l:3%-/"&i$%--
I/:'"L&0%"2&*"/$&0"&#:&*%:B"&0%-0$!3-*-L&4"&#:&
2&H:1$*3-&I*:2-1/-&m1:n&8/>03$&eTTT&*:+/$&$B$-
%$+:3-=&/$3#:3-/$2L&8"!$8*%:1H:2&-3&1$/$8*%:1-
H:2& 3"& /$3#-=L& *$%:#& *-8*-=& 0%$P:8-$3"1H:2L& 0$&
/"*:%-=&8$&4:#"38/$&!:%-1-&>4"%3$&!$;&2$#8/:(&
6$1-/I:3&4:1:+&28:=&8-1&#:&l:3%-/&*>4-&2&%:83-H-&
$42:4:1&0%:4&)$38:1-H:L&#:&3:!$'$;:&3"*"3;-
3$&$H:3-*-(&D!-8:13$&B-&B-1$&0%-;"/$2"*-L&4"&#:&
."&$B%"!B$&."1:4#"&$44:1-1&$B;>*3:&8-1:L&.1"8*-&
0:=$*$&-3&81"BI:&$0%:!1#:3$&!$I*2$L&/-&!>&2&
spopadu na bojnem polju ne bi veliko koristilo.
61#>B&*:!>&8:&3"#B%+&3:&B-&0%:3"'1-1-&.&4$!3:-
2$L&4"&#:&B-1$&2&"/*-23-&4:1&$0:%"H-#:&2/1#>;:3-=&
3"#!"3#&VTTT&*:+/$&$B$%$+:3-=&/$3#:3-/$2&-3&
samostrelcev ter vsaj še enkrat toliko pomo-
+3:'"& $8:B#"& -3& 1"+#-=& :3$*( 36 Vsekakor pa je
I1$& ."& 80$I*$2"3#"& 2%:43$& $B$%$+:3$& 8-1$L& /-&
/"+:&3"&2:1-/:&%".8:+3$8*-&l:3%-/$2:&%:83-;3:&
!$;-(&f:4%$&3#:'$2-=&:3$*&#:&0%-="#"1$&-.&6$%$-
I/:L&6%"3#8/:&-3&Q*"#:%8/:L&0%-4%>+-1-&0"&8$&8:&
!>&*>4-&3"#:!3-/-&-.&8$8:43#-=&4:+:1&-3&8:2:%ne
Italije.
34"p"3/"*?2()/&%029"+%"'%)%'3'2"()/&,$2"&2-%12&"&"'/1%)/8,>"2++/$1,>"',"'%&/+/'29"
)/8"?8/+&,+/&%029"+%"-/"D,$"&"&4%1/0"2+"'-,>"'%-0%'-"/'")/V12"2D282V/',"12'-/',1"
%$,"4)8/$/=."N/()/&/1"&"8%3*'41,"1'-,E,"W'%(%"@KKR")/V12"2D282V/',>"&2-%12&",'"QAT"
4)8/$=/&9"1%8"-/"028+%"?24$/+,=%"8%3*'41/"'%?%1/."a24/J"12"'%4,),$,"4128%-"AQRR"$-*+,9"4"KR.RRR">$/D=,"?%"!.RRR."72&4/0"02E23/"-/"
tudi, da je dnevni obrok obsegal le en hlebec ali pa so celotno zalogo kruha porabili
V/"?8/-9")28/-"-/"D,$2"-/+=/&"(/"&/3.
92 ! V O J A Š K A Z G O D O V I N A
USS&bB2O"%*"2&6$B2'38&"%F:3%E-&YSS&F%$EEI$]632-&
m-SSS&E>3"%632&"28&[-SSS&1*O:'1C&"%638&:$%E3632&
"28&>3"E"2'E-&%3E>3F'*@31C&"Ba*1*"%C&B2*'E. 35 This to-
'"1& 2B6I3%& $;& Q[-SSS& '%$$>E& 6*O:'& E336& '$& I3& '$$&
:*O:-& C3'& $23& :"E& '$& F$2E*83%& ':"'& *'& *E& 2$'& "2& ">-
>%$a*6"'*$2&$;&"&F:%$2*F13%-&IB'&':"'&*'&*E&I"E38&$2&
administrative data. The number may become more
acceptable when it is compared with the data on the
;$%F3E& $;& b32%C& $;& K$%*+*".& W'& E:$B18& "1E$& I3& 632tioned
that the entire number of the forces includes
Ñ$21Cz&c-SSS&:3"@*1C&"%638&:$%E3632-&F%$EEI$]632&
"28&6$B2'38&"%F:3%E-&':"'&*E-&':3&>%$;3EE*$2"1E&':"'&
formed the real striking force of the army. It is impossible
to estimate the precise extent of the actual
number of forces that were led by Henry to Monselice.
It would be reasonable to expect that he assigned a
large number of troops to the rear defence; these forces
comprised infantry and lightly armed auxiliary
'%$$>E-&]:*F:&]$B18&2$'&I3&$;&O%3"'&BE3&*2&"2&32O"O3-
632'&$2&':3&I"''13;*318.&43E>*'3&"11&$;&':*E-&]3&]$B18&
not risk to make too hasty assumptions by presuming
that the active component participating in the
$>3%"'*$2&F$2E*E'38&$;&"'&13"E'&U-SSS&:3"@*1C&"%638&
:$%E3632&"28&F%$EEI$]632-&"E&]311&"E&"'&13"E'&']*F3&
as many auxiliary personnel and lighter units. 36
M3@3%':313EE-& *'& ]"E& "2& "%6C& $;& "& %3E>3F'"I13& E*+3-&
which demonstrated Henry’s real power. The core of
:*E& B2*'E& $%*O*2"'38& ;%$6& 0"%*2':*"-& 0"%2*$1"& "28&
N'C%*"-&]:*F:&]3%3&"1E$&#$*238&IC&63%F32"%*3E&;%$6&
neighbouring countries and Northern Italy.
35 MHDC VIII, document no. 722, s. l., 1324 end of May; document no. 723, Treviso,
1324 June 3.
36 The purchase of bread which is detailed in the continuation of the text gives a hint
)>%)")>,4"'*0D/8",4"8/%$9",J"'2)"=2'4,+/8%D$P"=2'4/8&%),&/."7%8),=*$%8$P",')/8/4),'E"
are the two greatest supplies of bread, one of almost 55,000 and the other of
30,000 loafs. As bread is a perishable food, each supply could not be expected
to last much longer than three days. If we assume that each soldier was provided
with two loaves of bread a day, 55,000 loaves would feed almost 9,200 persons in
three days and 30,000 loaves 5,000 persons. It is also possible that a day’s ration
consisted only of one loaf or that the entire supply of bread was consumed in a
shorter time, therefore meaning that the actual number of troops may have been
even higher.

& 89$/+(.#"&19)#5$&"6& 89$/+(.#"&19)#5$
& 102:#$-&:":+12 37 & '"&;"'5)&#)5$-#+?0$*)&"''$(0)&& @$A0"&& 49B$(%+& @$A0"& C().+("&
& "6"B"A$#+& & "6"B"A$#+& D=&52#+5) 39
& 0"#5$#+0+& & 0"#5$#+0+& (v lb.)
Henrik Graland 16 6 16 576 lb.
l:3%-/&2$3&E>P:38*:-3& \& & &
`=(&2$3&E%B:%'& RY& & &
Jakob von Sankt )-H=":18B>%'& Y& & &
O-:*!"%&2$3&D"3/*&%-#&2$3&E3':%=:-!&-3&3#:'$2&8*%-H&f"3:.& W& & &
`=(&2$3&D:B:3& \& & &
Fritz ab dem Berg 3
Teyser 3
l(&2$3&A%"4:1& V& & &
5$B-"8&2$3&C$43-3H=& V& & &
O-"B$1>8&2$3&)>1B"H=& V& & &
DH=$3:'':%&-3&E1*="-!:%& V& & &
Zaissinger 1
Hans von Furmian 1
1>8L&l:1B1-3H=L&c3':%& R& & &
E34%:#&K":%%:30:H=& R& & &
l(&E>8*%>3H=& R& & &
i$H..:&-.&C:':38B>%'"& V& R& &
42"&mN%"3H=$3:8n& V& & &
A":B:1&`=%:g':%& R& & &
f>%-#&DH=%$PP:38*:-3& RV& \& &
Meusenreuter 4
l"%*3-4&2$3&p:-á:3:''& \& & &
"28*%-#8/-&2$#2$4"&M*$& VYT& ReT& &
1"2"3*-38/-&I/$P 41 36 16 16 576 lb.
& & & VT& kVT&1B(
'%$P"&)"#3="%4&-3&E1B%:=*&M%*:3B>%I/- \V && YZ& VT& SR 43 & VRWS&1B(
'%$P&DH=">3B:%I/-& e\& RS& e\&& RVV\&1B(
'%$P&AP"33B:%I/-& YT& eT& YT& RZTT&1B(
'$80$4&l$=:31$H=& VV& RY& RR& eWS&1B(
& & & RR& eWS&1B(
l:%4:':3&A*>#8/-& YT& RS& VY& WTT&1B(
& & & VY& WTT&1B(
l>'$&D2-B:38/-& V\& RR& RV& \eV&1B(
& & & RV& \eV&1B(
h$23:I/-& V\& Z& RV& \eV&1B(
& & & RV& \eV&1B(
37 Riedmann 1977, str. 544–546.
38 Riedmann 1977, str. 547–551.
39" 72"1$-*3*f"@"0%81%"_0.b"w"@R"$,D/8"_$D.b"w"@QR"E82(/&"_E.b.
40" G2$2'"&2'"]$%4=>D/8E"-/"D,$"*?8%&,3/'"+2"KRR"0."D/8'41/")/V/"2+(12+','/"W%"4$*VD2&%'-/"?8,"7%+2&,."5/80%'"C,/44'/89"Monumenta historica ducatus Carinthiae, IX, Klagenfurt
1963, listina št. 70, Innsbruck, 1327 januar 5.
41" `2-&2+%"5/'8,1"-/"$%&%'),'41/0*"(12J*"H,)8,1*"@Q."0%-%"@KQ!",W?$%3%$"+2+%)',>"@BR"0."W%"&,'2",'"V,)29"1,"E%"-/"+2D,$"'%"G282(1/09"KQ"0."W%"(12J2&/E%"D2-'/E%"12'-%9"1*?$-/'/E%"
W%"D2-',"?2>2+"'%"7%+2&29"W%"KB"21$/?',12&",'"@B"4)8/$=/&"?%"(/"TSR"0."2E$/-41,>"+/'%8,3/&."G/8"&2-&2+%")/>"W'/412&"',"D,$"4?242D/'"?$%3%),"&"E2)2&,',9"-/"(12J*"W%3%4'2"?8/?*4),$"
grad pri Freibergu na Koroškem. MHDC VIII, listina št. 776, Innsbruck, 1325 maj 12.; listina št. 778, Innsbruck, 1325 maj 16.
42" `2-&2+%"5/'8,1"-/"E82J*"U$D8/>)*"k8)/'D*8(1/0*"@B."4/?)/0D8%"@KQB"W%"4$*VD2&%'-/"?8/+"0/4)20"F2'4/$,=/"?8,W'%$"2+(12+','2"&"&,(,',"TRR"0."2E$/-41,>"+/'%8,3/&")/8"0*"W%)2"
zastavil Kostanjevico na Krki. MHDC IX, listina št. 46, Innsbruck, 1326 september 16.
43 K tej enoti je poleg oddelka ortenburških grofov Majnharda in Albrehta štet še vitez Ulrik von Silberberg z dvema spremljevalcema s Frankovskega.
M I L I T A R Y H I S T O R Y ! 93

C>4$1P&2$3&D*"**:''& k& \& k& VYV&1B(
6$3%"4&2$3&E>P:38*:-3 44 & Wk& \S& RTT& eSTT&1B(
štirje Liebenbergerjevi 45 & YV& R\& Yk& VTYV&1B(
%$4B-3"&i1"3:''& S& R& S& VRS&1B(
M8*%$2-I/-& RV& V& RV& \eV&1B(
5%>H=83:%& S& V& S& VRS&1B(
Gradenegger z bratrancem 4 4 144 lb.
Ungnad 14 8
i%:-P&^%:*:I/-& eV& R\& Z& VZZ&1B(
& & & V\& ZS\&1B(
N%-4:%-/&^%:*:I/-&8&8*%-H:!& RS& ~& Z& VZZ&1B(
& & & Z& VZZ&1B(
5>%#"I/-& RT& V& Y& RZT&1B(
5 180 lb.
c1%-/&A-1H='%":*..:%& e& R& e& RTZ&1B(
`=(&D*"%H=:3B:%':%& V& R& V& kV&1B(
p-80:H=&.&B%"*%"3H:!& RR& & RR& eWS&1B(
Hugo Devinski 46 & YT& VT& YT& RZTT&1B(
D*>=8::& RT& ~& &
i"11&2$3&:%& Z& & Z& VZZ&1B(
Gukaeniaer 8
Spengenberger 10
i"1>":3-':%&U&i"1>:3&-.&)"3-"'"& V& ~& V& kV&1B(
C>B:g3:%&U&K-/$1"#&C>B-3:%& R& & R& eS&1B(
enote v Trevisu 50
:3$*:&2&A"4$2-& VTT& & &
p"H=80:>*:1& Z& Y& &
M%*$1P&-.&Q:3*2-4"& & & VV& kWV&1B(
& & & VV& kWV&1B(
Ñ&2$3&i>34$1>-3':3& & & V& kV&1B(
2-*:.&2$3&D-1B:%B:%'& & & S& VRS&1B(
baselski najemniki 4 144 lb.
4 144 lb. 47
babenberški najemniki 14 504 lb.
p-80:H=&-3&3#:'$2&B%"*%"3:HL&2$4#-&8/>0-3:&8"1.B>%I/-=&3"#:!3-/$2& & & RR& eWS&1B(
Janez Goldegg 1 36 lb.
f"3:.&i$14:''&-3&42-/&):%:%& & & V& kV&1B(
l:%!"3&2$3&E1*=$P:3&7M>P=$>:3?& & & R& eS&1B(
44"Q!."%&E*4)%"@KQ!"-/"&2-&2+%"5/'8,1"G2'8%+*"W%"4$*VD2&%'-/"?8,"7%+2&,",'"2D$/E%'-/"F2'4/$,="$/)2"?8/-9"W%"?2)'/"4)82(1/",'"2+1*?','2"W%"'I8'D/8(1/E%"E82J%"&"u/')&,+*"?8,W'%$"(/"
2+(12+','2"&"&,(,',"@BRR"0."2E$/-41,>"+/'%8,3/&."F5HM"`vvv9"$,4),'%"()."SRQ9"v''4D8*=19"@KQ!"%&E*4)"Q!.
45" QQ."21)2D8%"@KQ!"-/"&2-&2+%"5/'8,1"7/)8*"Z,/D/'D/8E/8-*"W%"4$*VD2&%'-/"?8,"7%+2&,",'"E8%+'-2"&""+/'%8,3/&9"1,"-,>"-/"'%0/8%&%$"?218,),",W"
prihodkov na Kranjskem. MHDC IX, listina št. 179, Gries, 1328 maj 17.
47 Le za drugi mesec.
94 ! V O J A Š K A Z G O D O V I N A

38='1#;.>6 37 ,.>6#5?#@A#/%)6 38
B6'C62;#8D#E62-6)'2?#C6='-FE6)=;# G6'H.1?# 92-F62;# G6'H.1?# I'?E6)=#
# '2E6C# # '2E6C# 8)#J#/%)6 39
# F82;6E6)# # F82;6E6)# (in lb.)
Heinrich Graland 16 6 16 576 lb.
Heinrich von Aufenstein 4
Ch. von Arberg 15
Jakob von Sankt Michaelsburg 5
Dietmar von Sankt Lamprechtsburg 4
_''$&@$2&H%3C& Q& & &
Flachsperger jr. 40 6 4
Georg von Vilanders 10
j*1:316&@$2&K3%%32E'3*2& U& & &
Huntlin Laurencius and comrades 18 6
Sebnerius 4
H. Aeuster 4
Ch. Puchaer 1 1
G$1,6"%& Ä& & &
Ulrich von Schwangau 1
Chaerlinger 4
!B1E3%& U& & &
Jakob Vollrer 1
0$B2'&$;&,4"4/8&,=/",'"7%+*%."5/80%'"C,/44'/89"Monumenta historica ducatus Carinthiae, IX, Klagenfurt
1963, document no. 70, Innsbruck, 1327 January 5.
41 On 12 May 1325, Duke Henry paid Dietrich, the Bishop of Lavant, an additional 160 m. for water and grain, which he obtained from Carinthia, 32 m. for the Bishop’s war horse
D2*E>)"J28")>/"=%0?%,E'",'"7%+*%"%'+"TSR"0."2J"U[*,$/,%'"7J/'',E4"J28"KB"%802*8/+"42$+,/84"%'+"@B"%8=>/84."U4")>/"H*1/"X%4"'2)"%D$/")2"?%P"%$$")>/4/"%02*')4",'"=%4>9">/">%+"
to temporarily resign his castle in Freiberg in Carinthia to the Bishop. MHDC VIII, document no. 776, Innsbruck, 1325 May 12.; document no. 778, Innsbruck, 1325 May 16.
42" k'"@B"N/?)/0D/8"@KQB9"H*1/"5/'8P"%$$2X/+"M2*')"U$D8/=>)"&2'"k8)/'D*8E"%"8/,0D*84/0/')"2J"TRR"0."2J"U[*,$/,%'"7J/'',E4"J28">,4"4/8&,=/",'"F2'4/$,=/"%'+"E%&/">,0"G24)%'jevica
on Krka in pledge. MHDC IX, document no. 46, Innsbruck, 1326 September 16.
43 In addition to the detachment led by the Counts of Ortenburg, Meinhard and Albrecht, the unit included the Knight Ulrich von Silberberg with two followers from Franconia.
M I L I T A R Y H I S T O R Y ! 95

`B8$1;&@$2&N'"''3OO& m& [& m& UXU&1I.
Conrad von Aufenstein 44 Vm& [R& QSS& cRSS&1I.
Four members of the Liebenberg family 45 XU& Q[& Xm& USXU&1I.
5:3&K1"23OO&;"6*1C& R& Q& R& UQR&1I.
_E'3%]*'+& QU& U& QU& [cU&1I.
5%BF:E23%& R& U& R& UQR&1I.
Gradenegger and his cousin 4 4 144 lb.
Ungnad 14 8
K%3*;&@$2&`3B'32I3%O&9á%3'3(=& cU& Q[& Y& YR[&1I.
& & & U[& UYY&1I.
P%*38%*F:&@$2&`3B'32I3%O&9á%3'3(=&"28&:*E&B2F13& QR& Ä& Y& UYY&1I.
& & & Y& UYY&1I.
5:3&/B3%E>3%OE&95B%#",=& QS& U& X& QYS&1I.
5 180 lb.
k1%*F:&H*1F:O%"3'++3%&9H$1:$@&K%"83F=& c& Q& c& QSY&1I.
0:.&N'"%F:32I3%O3%& U& Q& U& mU&1I.
j*E>3F:&"28&:*E&F$BE*2& QQ& & QQ& cVR&1I.
Hugo von Tübein (Duino) 46 XS& US& XS& QYSS&1I.
N'B:E33& QS& Ä& &
K"11&@$2&D*3I3OO& U& U& U& mU&1I.
/11&636I3%E&$;&':3&K$''3%E&;"6*1C& US& R&
N'%"EE"B3%& Y& & Y& UYY&1I.
Gukaeniaer 8
Spengenberger 10
K"1B"32*O3%TK"1B32&;%$6&!"2*"O$& U& Ä& U& mU&1I.
`BI3C23%TM*F:$1"E&`BI*23%& Q& & Q& cR&1I.
Units in Treviso 50
k2*'E&*2&H"8B"& USS& & &
Wachspeutel 8 5
_%'$1;&;%$6&N'.&G3*'& & & UU& mVU&1I.
& & & UU& mVU&1I.
Ü&@$2&KB28$1B*2O32& & & U& mU&1I.
72*O:'&@$2&N*1I3%I3%O& & & R& UQR&1I.
Mercenaries from Basel 4 144 lb.
4 144 lb. 47
Mercenaries from Babenberg 14 504 lb.
j*E>3F:&"28&:*E&F$BE*2-&13"83%E&$;&':3&63%F32"%C&O%$B>E&;%$6&N"1+IB%O& & & QQ& cVR&1I.
Johann Goldegg 1 36 lb.
e$:"22&K$183OO&"28&DB8]*O&!3%3%& & & U& mU&1I.
b3%6"22&@$2&/1':$;32&9_B;:$B32=& & & Q& cR&1I.
44"k'"Q!"U*E*4)"@KQ!9"H*1/"5/'8P9"%$$2X/+"%"8/,0D*84/0/')")2"M2'8%+"J28">,4"4/8&,=/",'"7%+*%"%'+"+*8,'E")>/"4,/E/"2J"F2'4/$,=/",'")>/"?8/&,2*4"P/%89"J28">,4")8%&/$"/j?/'=/4"%'+"
8%'420"J28"%"=/8)%,'"=2*')"J820"h*8/0D/8E",'"N)."`/,)",'")>/"%02*')"2J"@9BRR"0."2J"U[*,$/,%'"7J/'',E4."F5HM"`vvv9"+2=*0/')"'2."SRQ9"v''4D8*=19"@KQ!"U*E*4)"Q!.
45" k'"QQ"k=)2D/8"@KQ!9"H*1/"5/'8P"?%,+"7/)/8"Z,/D/'D/8E/8"J28">,4"4/8&,=/",'"7%+*%"%'+")>/"=2'4)8*=),2'"2J")>/"=%4)$/"2J",=>">/"D2*E>)"J28"
>,0",'"7%+*%."F5HM"vs9"+2=*0/')"'2."@T:9"N=)."Y/'2D/8E9"@KQS"a%'*%8P"Q@."
46" k'"@:"F%P"@KQS9"H*1/"5/'8P"%$$2X/+"5*E2"2J"eID/,'"J28">,4"4/8&,=/",'"7%+*%"%'+")>/"4,/E/",'"F2'4/$,=/"%"8/,0D*84/0/')"2J"@9QRR"0."2J"U[*,$/,%'"7J/'',E4"X>,=>">/",')/'+/+")2"
cover with the income from Carniola. MHDC IX, document no. 179, Gries, 1328 May 17.
47 Only for the second month.
96 ! V O J A Š K A Z G O D O V I N A

D&8:.3"!"&#:&!$'$;:&#"83$&%".B%"*-&8:8*"-
2$& 3"3$2";:3-=& :3$*(& A$4$B3$& /$*& 2& 4%>'-=&
:2%$08/-=& 4:+:1"=& 2& *-8*:!& $B4$B#>& #:& *>4-&
koroški vojvoda pridobival najemnike iz raz-
1-;3-=&2-%$2(&)$;3:#I:&8"!$8*$#3:&/$3*-3':3*:&
8$& 0%-80:2"1-& 3#:'$2-& ."2:.3-/-& -3& 0%:!$+3-L&
>'1:43-& 01:!-;-(& K-+#:& 01:!8*2$& $.-%$!"& 0$-
/1-H3-&2$#"/-&8$&0%-="#"1-&2&!"3#I-=&8/>0-3"=L&
3:/"*:%-& H:1$& 8"!-(& N$%!"13:& P:24"13:& $B2:znosti
so bile pri tem manj pomembne kot
4%>+-38/:&2:.-&-3&01";-1"L&/-&8$&0%-0"4"1"&28:!&
>4:1:+:3-!&3"#:!3-/$!(&9"*$&#:&$%'"3-."H-#ska
struktura Henrikove vojske videti zelo barvita
ali celo ad hoc 3"%"2:L&8"#&8$&#$&8:8*"21#"1-&
I*:2-1;3$&%".1-;3-&$44:1/-L&/-&#-=&#:&B-1$&*%:B"&."&
B$#3$&4:1$2"3#:&I:&8!-8:13$&>%:4-*-&2&*"/*-;3:&
enote. 48
K"& !:48:B$#3$& 0$2:."3$8*& 3:/"*:%-=& /$3-
*-3':3*$2L&B$4-8-&."%"4-&$.:!:1#8/:&B1-+-3:&B$-
4-8-&."%"4-&8$%$48*2:3-=&0$2:."2L&$8:B3-=&0$-
.3"38*:2&"1-&81>+B$2"3#"&0%-&-8*:!&P:24"13:!&
'$80$4>&/"+:&4:#8*2$L&4"&8$&*"/$&2&0%2:!&0$0--
8>&/$*&2&01";3:!&8:.3"!>L&-.4"3:!&2&A"4$2-L&
navedeni bolj ali manj v enakem zaporedju. To
1"=/$&$0".-!$&0%"2&0%-&$44:1/-=&8&81$2:38/:-
'"& :*3-;3:'"& $.:!1#"& "1-& 3:0$8%:43:& B1-+-3:J&
1"2"3*-38/:!& I/$P>L& E>P:38*:-3-=L& l:%4:'3>&
A*>#8/:!L&l>'>&D2-B:38/:!L&h$23:I/-=L&^%:-
*:I/-=L& 5>%#"I/-=(& O"& #-=& 2& 01";3:!& 8:.3"!>&
3"#4:!$&."0-8"3:&4%>':'"&."&4%>'-!L&'$*$2$&
3-& 3"/1#>;#:L& *:!2:;& 4$/".>#:L& 4"& 8$& 2& A"4$-
2$& 0%-I1-& 0%-B1-+3$& -8*$;"83$& *:%& 8$& 2& 0%"23-=&
0$81-=&_&.:1$&2:%#:*3$&0"&*>4-&0$.3:#:&0%-&-.-
2"#"3#>&2$#"I/-=&$0:%"H-#&_&3"8*$0"1-&8/>0"#(&@&
tistem obdobju je v okviru sil koroškega vojvo-
4:& 4:1$2"1& I:& 0$8:B:3& /$3*-3':3*& i$%-I/-=& 8&
8/>03$&Zk&*:+/$&$B$%$+:3-!-&/$3#:3-/-( \W
A$1:'& /$3*-3':3*$2& 3"& .'$%3#:!& 8:.3"!>L&
/-& #-=& #:& 2$#2$4"& $;-*3$& ."0$81-1& ."& 4$B$& *%"-
#"3#"& 0$=$4"L& #:& #>3-#"& I:& 0%:4& 3"0"4$!& 3"&
)$38:1-H:&."&/%"#I-&;"8&3"#:1&*>4-&3:/"#&4%>'-=&
:3$*& 0$& 43:23-& *"%-P-& RT& 8(& 3"& /$3#"(& 5"/$& #:&
6$3%"4"& 2$3& DH=:33"3"& 3"#0%:#& 2.:1& 2& 81>+-
B$&."&RT&43-&.&VST&/$3#:3-/-&."&8/>03$&28$*$&
ReTT&1B(L&3"*$&0"&."&-8*$&4$B$&8&ek&/$3#:3-/-&
."& RZY& 1B(& 6$3*-3':3*>& 6$3%"4"& E>P:38*:-3"&
8:&#:&."&RT&43-&0%-4%>+-1&D-1B:%B:%':%&.&ZR&/$-
3#-& ."& 01";-1$& \TY& 1B( 50 Prav tako je v okviru
48"72+2D/'"4,4)/0"'2&%3/'-%9"&"1%)/8/0"42"?8/&$%+2&%$,"()/&,$3'2"0%->',"'%-/0',(1,"
2++/$1,9"-/"D,$"2D,3%-/'")*+,"+8*E2+"&"?2W'248/+'-/&/(1,"c&82?,."78,0."78/4)X,=>"
1996, str. 41–48; Sergio Boffa, Warfare in Medieval Brabant 1356–1406, Woodbridge
2004, zlasti str. 196 sl.
49" Y%"41*?'2"?$%3,$2"QR!Q"$D."$E38&$;&83'"F:632'E&$;&@"%*$BE&
E*+3E&]:*F:&:"8&C3'&'$&I3&'%"2E;$%638&*2'$&'"F'*F"1&
units appropriate for combat operations. 48
The interconnection between some contingents
':"'& 6"C& I3& "& %3EB1'& $;& '3%%*'$%*"1& @*F*2*'C-& ;"6*1C&
%31"'*$2E-& >3%E$2"1& "FdB"*2'"2F3E& $%& E3%@*F3& '$& ':3&
E"63&;3B8"1&1$%8-&*E&>%$@32&IC&':3&;"F'&':"'&':3C&">pear
in a more or less identical order on both the
first register as well as on the payment roll issued in
Padua. This can also be noticed particularly among
the detachments originating from the Slovenian
territory or its immediate vicinity: the Bishop of
D"@"2'-&':3&/B;32E'3*2E-&b3%83O32&@$2&H3''"B-&bBO$&
@$2&NF:"%;;32I3%O-&':3&N"23OOE-&':3&`3B'32I3%OE-&':3&
Auerspergs. That the payment bill lists them behind
3"F:&$':3%&F"22$'&I3&"&F$*2F*832F3-&IB'&836$2E'%"'3E&
that they arrived in Padua at the same time and conducted
their legal affairs together (most likely also
1"'3%&$2-&]:32&>"%'*F*>"'*2O&*2&6*1*'"%C&$>3%"'*$2E=.&
W2& ':*E& >3%*$8-& ':3%3& ]"E& "1E$& "& E>3F*"1& F$2'*2O32'&
;%$6& K$%*+*"& E3%@*2O& ':3& 4B,3& ]*':& "& '$'"1& $;& Ym&
heavily armed horsemen. [V
Along with the contingents listed in the above-
632'*$238&%3O*E'3%E-&]:*F:&]3%3&3@*832'1C&36>1$C38&
IC& ':3& 8B,3& ;$%& ':3& 32'*%3& >3%*$8& $;& ':3& F"6>"*O2-&
Henry also hired other units at the daily cost of
QS&E:*11*2OE&>3%&:$%E3&*2&eB23-&I3;$%3&':3&"''"F,&$2&
!$2E31*F3.&5:BE-&:3&36>1$C38&0$2%"8&@$2&NF:322"2-&
*2*'*"11C&;$%&QS&8"CE&]*':&URS&:$%E3632&;$%&':3&'$'"1&
EB6&$;&QcSS&1I-&"28&1"'3%&$2-&$2F3&"O"*2&;$%&':3&E"63&
period with 37 horsemen for 185 lb. The contingent
of Conrad von Aufenstein was reinforced by a certain
Silberberger for 10 days with 81 horses against
the payment of 405 lb. 50 &N*6*1"%1C-&"2&*2;"2'%C&B2*'&
48 A similar recruitment system in which smaller-sized mercenary detachments pre-
&%,$/+"X%4"=2002'$P"*4/+",'"2)>/8"?%8)4"2J"$%)/"0/+,/&%$"c*82?/."MJ."78/4)X,=>"
1996, pp. 41–48; Sergio Boffa, Warfare in Medieval Brabant 1356–1406, Woodbridge
2004, in particular p. 196 ff.
49 For the total payment of 2052 lb. Riedmann 1977, pp. 547–551.
50 Riedmann 1977, pp. 548–549.
M I L I T A R Y H I S T O R Y ! 97

A$*:/&0$=$4"&/$%$I/:'"&2$#2$4:&l:3%-/"&#>3-#"&-3&#>1-#"&ReV\ 5:3&F$B%E3&$;&':3&F"6>"*O2&$;&4B,3&b32%C&*2&eB23&"28&eB1C&QcU[.
Henrikove vojske delovala enota pešakov pod
poveljstvom nekega Hermanina. To so 4. julija
01";"1-&8&Re&!(&Z&1B(&k&'(L&2:34"%&3:&2:!$L&/$likšna
je bila niti za kako dolgo so jo najeli. 51
M&l:3%-/$2-=&/%"*/$%$;3-=&H-1#-=&1"=/$&8/1:-
0"!$&1:&3"&0$41"'-&$=%"3#:3-=&0$%$;-1L&2:34"%&
#:&28"#&8*%"*:I/$&$;-*3$L&/"#&#:&+:1:1&4$8:;-&_&."-
2"%$2"*-& A"4$2$L& 28"#& ."8*%"I-*-& `"3'%"34:#"L&
!$%4"& 0"& 2& >'$43-=& $/$1-I;-3"=& H:1$& -..2"*-&
$41$;-13-&80$0"4(&6$1-/$%&1"=/$&0%:8$4-!$L&#:&
B-1"&."43#"&!$+3$8*&I:&3"#!"3#&2:%#:*3"(&C"zvoj
dogodkov pa je bil odvisen zlasti od odziva
Cangrandeja.
Henrikova vojska si je po zboru v Padovi iz-
B%"1"&."&H-1#&)$38:1-H:L&!:8*$L&/-&#:&I:1:&!"1$&
pred tem prišlo pod veronsko oblast. Kljub velikim
in dragim pripravam pa je napad propa-
4:1(&K"&!$;2-%3:!&.:!1#-I;>L&0%:0%:4:3:!&8&
/"3"1-L&8$&2$#2$4$2$&2$#8/$&.4:8:*/"1:&B$1:.3-L&
51 Riedmann 1977, str. 554.
98 ! V O J A Š K A Z G O D O V I N A
under the command of a certain Hermanin operated
as part of Henry’s army. This unit was paid on 4 July
]*':&Qc&6.&Y&1I.&m&O%.&k2;$%'B2"'31C-&23*':3%&':3&3a-
"F'&E*+3&2$%&':3&8B%"'*$2&$;&':3*%&E3%@*F3&"%3&,2$]2. 51
Conclusions on Henry’s short-term objectives can
be only inferred on the basis of the preserved re-
>$%'E.&b$]3@3%-&*'&*E-&"'&13"E'&;%$6&"&E'%"'3O*F&>$*2'&
$;&@*3]-&3@*832'&]:"'&:3&]"2'38&'$&"F:*3@3&h&'$&>%$-
'3F'&H"8B"-&83'3%&0"2O%"283&"28&>$EE*I1C-&*2&6$%3&
;"@$B%"I13&F$28*'*$2E-&>%$@$,3&"&83F*E*@3&32F$B2'3%.&
/E&;"%&"E&]3&F"2&3E'*6"'3-&':3&1"''3%&>$EE*I*1*'C&]"E&
13"E'&>$EE*I13.&g3'-&':3&83@31$>632'&$;&':3&3@32'E&83pended
on Cangrande’s reactions.
k>$2& "EE36I1*2O& *2& H"8B"-& b32%CfE& "%6C& "8-
@"2F38& "O"*2E'& !$2E31*F3-& "& '$]2& ]:*F:& $21C& %3cently
had fallen under Veronese authority. Despite
3a'32E*@3& "28& 3a>32E*@3& >%3>"%"'*$2E-& ':3& "''"F,&
;"*138.& _2& E]"6>C& '3%%"*2-& F$@3%38& ]*':& F:"2231E-&
the duke’s army was decimated by disease and had
51 Riedmann 1977, p. 554.

."*$& 8:& #:& >!"/3-1"& +:& 0$& *%:=& *:43-=( YV Ob
*:!&$;-*3$&3-&B-1$&3-*-&:3:'"&2:;#:'"&80$0"4"(&
Cangrande se je modro izognil neposrednemu
!:%#:3#>&!$;-&-3&0%:0>8*-1&l:3%-/>L&4"&82$#:&
8-1:&-.;%0"&0%:4&)$38:1-H"!-(&
A$*:/& 0$=$4"& 1"=/$& 3"#B$1#:& %:/$38*%>-%"-
!$&-.&42:=&%";>3$2$48/-=&80-8$2L&/-&8*"&0%"2-
."0%"2&0%:'1:4&0%:#:!/$2&-3&-.4"*/$2L&0$2:."-
3-=&.&$%'"3-.-%"3#:!&*:&3:>80:I3:&$40%"2:( 53
VR(&#>3-#"&8$&l:3%-/$2:&:3$*:&."0>8*-1:&A"4$-
2$L&4"3&0$.3:#:&0"&8$&+:&0%-I1:&0%:4&)$38:1-H:&
in tam postavile tabor. Razdalja med mestoma
#:& 1:& VR& /!& 2& .%";3-& ;%*-L& *$%:#& 4$2$1#& $B21"-
41#-2"L& 4"& B-& #$& *>4-& 0:I"/-& 8& 0%"*:+:!& 1"=/$&
prepotovali v enem dnevu. Seznam nato popi-
8>#:&8*%$I/:&."&=%"3$&-3&4%>':&0$*%:BI;-3:&4$&
RR(&#>1-#"L&/$&8:&#:&l:3%-/$2"&2$#8/"&>!"/3-1"&
-3& 0%:3$;-1"& 3"& *%"23-/>& 0%-& A"4$2-(& 5"!& #:&
ostala ves dan in se spet premaknila šele dan
pozneje. Nato je še nekaj dni manevrirala –
Re(&#>1-#"&#:&$BI1"&A"4$2$&-3&0%:;/"1"&,%:3*$L&
istega dne pa je vojvoda Henrik tudi uradno
/$3;"1&$B1:'"3#:&)$38:1-H&-3&8/1:3-1&0%:!-%#:&
s Cangrandejem. 54 Njegove sile so se nato po-
;"8-&0$!-/"1:&I:&0%-B1-+3$&RT&/!&3"2.'$%&$B&
%:;3:!& *$/>& 0$& 8:2:%3:!& B%:'>& -3& Rk(& #>1-#"&
$B8*"1:&0%-&2"8-&D"3&)"%*-3$L&Rk&/!&8:2:%$."-
=$43$&$4&A"4$2:( 55
Operacija je bila torej presenetljivo kratko-
*%"#3"& -3& 2$#"I/$& 3-& 4$8:'1"& 3-;:8"%(& 94-& 8:L&
da je bila namenjena predvsem razkazovanju
!$;-(&c0%"2-;:3$&1"=/$&42$!-!$&$&*:!L&"1-&#:&
2$#2$4"&l:3%-/&801$=&%:83$&3"!:%"2"1&."8:8*-&
Monselice. Navsezadnje na celotnem seznamu
*%"38"/H-#&3-&."81:4-*-&3$B:3-=&01";-1L&0$2:."-
3-=& .& -3+:3-%8/-!-& 8*%$/$23#"/-L& -.4:1"2$& "1-&
*%"380$%*$!&$B1:'$2"13-=&3"0%"2(&,%:.&*"/I3:&
$0%:!:&0"&3:&B-&B-1$&!$'$;:&."8:8*-&>*%#:3:-
'"L&0%-!:%3$&B%"3#:3:'"&!:8*"b&0%"2&*"/$&3-&
0$4"*/$2&$&*:!L&4"&B-&l:3%-/&0$8/>8-1&*2:'"*-&
P%$3*"13-&3"8/$/&3"&!:8*$(&
I51$3#)&4$>$27&)-&*$8)'5)%-7&4$24$17
Henrikova odprava kljub velikopoteznemu
3";%*$2"3#>& 3-& $B%$4-1"& 0%"2-=& 8"4$2(& @8::3$&
je za raziskovanje srednjeveške vojaške zgodo-
2-3:&."3-!-2"&28"#&0$&:3-&01"*-&_&."%"4-&%";>-
3$2$48/-=&0$0-8$2&$B8*"#"#$&3"*"3;3-&0$4"*/-&
52 Friedensburg 1899, str. 202.
53 Riedmann 1977, str. 547–555.
54 MHDC VIII, listina št. 731, s. l. 1324 julij 13.
55" 78,0."]8\446c>8J/$+"@AST9"4)8."KSTOKS!9"KSS.
to withdraw after just three weeks without a single
major engagement. XU Cangrande wisely avoided a
direct confrontation and left Henry to exhaust his
forces around Monselice. The course of the campaign
can be best reconstructed with the help of two ac-
F$B2'*2O&E'"'3632'E-&]:*F:&"%3&"F'B"11C&"&%3O*E'3%&$;&
income and expenses referring to the organisation
of the failed campaign. 53 &_2&UQ&eB23-&b32%CfE&B2*'E&
left Padua and arrived at Monselice on the follow-
*2O& 8"C-& E3''*2O& B>& "& F"6>.& 5:3& 8*E'"2F3& I3']332&
':3&F*'*3E&*E&$21C&UQ&,6&"E&':3&F%$]&;1*3E-&2$&6$%3&
dan a day’s march even for infantry. The list states
the costs for rations and other requirements up to
QQ&eB23-&]:32&b32%CfE&"%6C&]*':8%3]&"28&E>32'&':3&
night on a meadow near Padua. It remained there all
8"C&"28&6$@38&$2&':3&;$11$]*2O&6$%2*2O.&5:32-&*'&
6"2$3B@%38&;$%&"2$':3%&;3]&8"CE-&IC>"EE38&H"8B"&
$2& Qc& eB1C& "28& F%$EE38& ':3& )%32'".& _2& ':3& E"63&
8"C-& 4B,3& b32%C& ;$%6"11C& "I"28$238& ':3& E*3O3& $;&
Monselice and concluded a truce with Cangrande. 54
His forces slowly moved 10 km upward along the river
stream on the northern banks and stopped in the
@*11"O3&$;&N"2&!"%'*2$-&Qm&,6&2$%':]3E'&$;&H"8B"-&
on 17 July. 55
The entire operation was surprisingly short and
failed to accomplish any of its goals. It seems that
*'&]"E&*2'32838&"E&"&63%3&E:$]&$;&;$%F3.&W2&;"F'-&]3&
can reasonably doubt whether Duke Henry had seri-
$BE&*2'32'*$2E&'$&$FFB>C&!$2E31*F3.&/;'3%&"11-&*'&*E&2$'&
possible to trace any payments in the accounts relat-
38&'$&32O*233%E-&':3&F$2E'%BF'*$2&$%&'%"2E>$%'&$;&E*3O3&
32O*23E.&j*':$B'&EBF:&3dB*>632'-&*'&]"E&2$'&>$EE*I13&
to conquer a fortified and adequately defended city.
There is also no information available that Henry’s
troops ever risked scaling the walls of Monselice in a
direct assault.
Costs of the Campaign and Logistic Support
43E>*'3&63'*FB1$BE&>1"2E-&b32%CfE&6*1*'"%C&3a>3-
8*'*$2&8*8&2$'&I3"%&;%B*'.&M3@3%':313EE-&"'&13"E'&$23&
aspect of it is interesting for the research of medieval
history – payment statements deliver detailed
*2;$%6"'*$2&$2&':3&3a>32E3E&$;&':3&32'*%3&F"6>"*O2-&
which allows us a much better understanding of the
financial aspect of warfare in the first half or the 14 th
century. As early as in the concluding phase of the
F$2F32'%"'*$2&$;&B2*'E&;%$6&c&'$&UQ&eB23-&':3&;*2"2cial
resources of Duke Henry were heavily burdened.
52 Friedensburg 1899, p. 202.
53 Riedmann 1977, pp. 547–555.
54 MHDC VIII, document no. 731, s. l. 1324 July 13.
55 Cf. Fräss-Ehrfeld 1984, pp. 384–385, 388.
M I L I T A R Y H I S T O R Y ! 99

$&8*%$I/-=&0$=$4"L&/"%&$!$'$;"&2:1-/$&B$1#I$&
0%:48*"2$& $& P-3"3;3-& 01"*-& 2$#8/$2"3#"& 2& 0%2-&
0$1$2-H-& R\(& 8*(& h:& 2& 8/1:03:!& 4:1>& .B-%"3#"&
:3$*&$4&e(&4$&VR(&#>3-#"&8$&B-1:&P-3"3H:&2$#2$4:&
l:3%-/"&!$;3$& $B%:!:3#:3:(&D0%$*-& #:&!$%"1&
3"!%:;& 01";:2"*-& 2$#"I/:& /$3*-3':3*:L& /-& 8$&
0%-80:1-&3"&.B-%3$&!:8*$L 56 ter vsaj delno poskr-
B:*-&."&3#-=$2$&$83$23$&0%:8/%B$L&*$%:#&/%>=&-3&
2-3$(& K"& %";>3$2$48/-=& 8:.3"!-=& 0"& 8$& *>4-&
%".1-;3"&-.01";-1"&4$1$;:3-!&0$-!:38/$&3"2:-
4:3-!&3"#:!3-/$!L&.1"8*-&*-8*-!&2-I#:'"&8*"3>L&
/-&3:&8$4-#$&!:4&$B-;"#3:&$B2:.3$8*-&3"#:!3-=&
0$'$4B(&@;"8-=&#:&I1$&!$%4"&."&2:1-/$4>I3"&3"domestila
za poškodovano oziroma izgubljeno
$0%:!$&"1-&0"&3"'%"4:&$.-%$!"&%:0%:.:3*"3;na
darila – na primer 400 lb. za bojnega konja
:3:!>& $4& ^%:*:I/-=L& l(& DH=:33"3>& ."& :3"/&
3"!:3&VTT&1B(L&RTT&1B(&."&!:;&2-*:.>&M%*$1P>&
-.&Q:3*2-4"L&\&1B(&."&0"%&0$.1";:3-=&$8*%$'(&@:-
1-/$&#:&*>4-&-.4"*/$2&."&0$*3:&8*%$I/:L&3"#:!"-
3#:&81>+-3;"4-&-3&0$!$+3:'"&$8:B#"L&8/%"*/"&."&
01";-1"L& 0$2:."3"& .& 2.4%+:2"3#:!& 01:!-I/:'"&
+-21#:3#8/:'"&81$'"( 57
5$&#:&0$!:!B:3&0$4"*:/L&/-&$0$."%#"&3"&8$cialne
vidike srednjeveškega najemništva. Na-
#:!3-I/:&01";:&8$&B-1:&8"!:&0$&8:B-&!$%4"&2-%&
."81>+/"&2$#"/$2&3-./:'"&%$4>&"1-&;1"3$!&3-+-
#:'"&01:!8*2"L&2:34"%&3-8$&."4$8*$2"1:&."&3:predvidene
stroške. Predvsem pa so bile veliko
0%:3-./:L&4"&B-&B-1$&!$'$;:&.&3#-!-&$0%:!-*-&-3&
01";:2"*-&I*:2-1;3:#I:L&%"./$I3:#I:&80%:!8*2$(&
,%:.& *:'"& 8:& 0$!:!B3:#I-& 01:!-;& 3-& !$':1&
>4:1:+-*-&2$#"I/:'"&0$=$4"L&28"#&3:L&;:&#:&+:-
1:1&$B4%+"*-&4%>+B:3-&>'1:4(&A$2:43$&#:L&4"&8$&
B-1-& -.01";"3-& .3:8/-& ."& *"/I3:& %:0%:.:3*"3;-
3:& -.4"*/:& 4$/"#& 2:1-/-(& M;-*3$& 0%:4& /%"*/-!&
povitezeni Jakob Vollrer je za »viteški stan«
0%:#:1&I:&3-./$&28$*$&RT&1B(L&K-/$1"#L&81>+"B3-/&
2-*:."&K-'%-3"L&YT&1B(&»ex gracia speciali«(&E%-
3$14&3-#"&0%:#:1&YTT&
1B(L&+:&0%:#&0"&8$&3#:'$2-!&81>+"B3-/$!&01";"1-&
/"%&V(S\T&1B(L&*$%:#&0%:H:#&2:;L&/$*&8$&8*"1:&3"-
#:!3-I/:&01";:&H:1$*3:'"&'$%-I/:'"&/$3*-3':3-
*"& 8& Zk& *:+/$& $B$%$+:3-!-& 2$#"/-(& K"I*:*"& 8$&
*>4-& !"3#I"& 01";-1"& %".1-;3-!& >%"43-/$!L& 3"&
56" e%"?$%3,$%"42"'%()/)%"&"?8&,")%D/$,.
57 Riedmann 1977, str. 547–551.
100 ! V O J A Š K A Z G O D O V I N A
5:"'&*E&'$&E"C-&:3&:"8&'$&>"C&:*E&6*1*'"%C&F$2'*2O32'E&
immediately as they arrived at the assembly site 56
and to partly provide for their basic supplies of bread
and wine. The payment statements also show that
various payments were made to certain mercenar-
*3E-& *2& >"%'*FB1"%& 2$I13632-& ':"'& ]3%3& 2$'& >"%'& $;&
ordinary obligations of recruitment contracts. These
payments might sometimes be generous reimbursements
for damaged or lost equipment or rewards and
formal gifts – for example 400 lb. for a war horse to
$23&$;&':3&`3B'32I3%OE&"28&USS&1I.&'$&b.&NF:322"B&
;$%&':3&E"63&>B%>$E3-&QSS&1I.&;$%&':3&E]$%8&$;&72*O:'&
_%'$1;&;%$6&N'.&G3*'-&[&1I.&;$%&"&>"*%&$;&O*1838&E>B%E.&
There were also a lot of financial resources dedicated
;$%&':3&>"C632'&$;&'%"@31&3a>32E3E-&:*%*2O&$;&E3%@"2'E&
"28&"Ba*1*"%C&>3%E$2231-&*2&E:$%'&>"C632'E&%31"'38&
to maintaining the extravagant knightly lifestyle. 57
This is a significant factor pointing out the social
aspects of medieval mercenaries. Mercenaries’
]"O3E&]3%3-&*2&*'E31;-&"&E$B%F3&$;&*2F$63&;$%&E$18*3%E&
$;&1$]I$%2&$%*O*2&$%&636I3%E&$;&':3&O32'%C-&C3'&':3C&
did not meet the requirements of unpredicted costs.
/I$@3&"11-&':3C&]3%3&6BF:&'$$&1$]&;$%&3dB*>>*2O&"28&
B>,33>*2O&"&1"%O3-&1BaB%*$BE&%3'*2B3.&j*':$B'&EBF:&"&
%3'*2B3&$;&"''328"2'E&"28&$':3%&;$11$]3%E-&2$&2$I13-
6"2&]"E&"I13&'$&>"%'*F*>"'3&*2&"&6*1*'"%C&F"6>"*O2-&
at least not as long as he tried to maintain his social
image. The fact that the sums paid for such representative
expenses were quite high is very suggestive.
The recently knighted Jakob Vollrer received a still
;"*%1C&6$83E'&O*;'&$;&QS&1I.&M*F:$1"E-&E3%@"2'&$;&72*O:'&
M*O%*2BE-& %3F3*@38& XS& 1I& 3a& O%"F*"& E>3F*"1*.& /%2$18&
Liebenberger and the chaplain of the Aufensteins
each received 100 lb. for an unknown reason while
72*O:'&_''$&G$11%3%&%3F3*@38&':3&E"63&"6$B2'&"E&"&
]388*2O&O*;'.&72*O:'&NF:%$;;32E'3*2&"28&b"%'2*8&@$2&
j3*{323OO&%3F*3@38&USS&1I.-&E$63&$':3%&>3%E$2E&]3%3&
given even higher amounts of money. The Austrian
8B,3&%3F3*@38&XSS&1I.&;$%&:*E&3a>32E3E&$2&UQ&eB23-&
"28&>%3@*$BE1C-&:*E&E3%@"2'E&:"8&I332&>"*8&"E&6BF:&
"E&U.R[S&1I.-&]:*F:&*E&*2F*832'"1C&6BF:&6$%3&':"2&
':3&63%F32"%C&]"O3E&$;&':3&32'*%3&K$%*+*"2&F$2'*2gent
with 87 men-at-arms. Listed are also smaller
>"C632'E&'$&@"%*$BE&$;;*F*"1E-&;$%&3a"6>13&XS&1I.&'$&
6"O*E'3%&)1"2+"%8*2$-&cSS&1I.&'$&"&F3%'"*2&6"O*E'3%&
H. for his work and travelling expenses. There were
also presents and items which had little direct link
]*':& ]"%L& ;$%& 3a"6>13& cU& 36>'C& I"%%31E& $;& ]:*F:&
3"F:& F$E'& [& 1I.-& "28& UU& 1I.& ;$%& "& F:"1*F3& "E& >"%'& $;&
56 These payments are listed in the first table.
57 Riedmann 1977, pp. 547–551.

primer 50 lb. magistru& ,1"3."%4-3>L& eTT& 1B(&
za delo in potne stroške magistru l(L&0"&*>4-&
4"%-1"&-3&0%:4!:*-L&/-&3-8$&B-1-&3:0$8%:43$&0$-
2:."3-&.&2$#8/$2"3#:!J&3"&0%-!:%&eV&0%".3-=&
8$4$2L&/-&8$&8*"1-&28"/&\&1B(L&*:%&VV&1B(&."&/:1-=L&
3"!:3#:3& 1-*>%'-;3-& $0%:!-( 58 & A$1:'& ."=*:2-
3:'"&1$'-8*-;3:'"&3";%*$2"3#"&-3&-.01";-1&3"#:-
!3-/$!&#:&*$%:#&3";%*$2"1H"&2$#"I/:'"&0$=$4"&
B%:!:3-1"&I:&/$0-H"&4%>'-=&4:#"23-/$2L&/-&8$&
."=*:2"1-&0%-!:%3$&%:.:%2$&'$*$2-3:&*:%&-./>-
I:3$&P-3"3;3$&81>+B$L&/-&#:&."'$*"21#"1"&4$B:%&
pregled nad blagajno. Še preden je Henrik od-
%-3-1&-.&A"4$2:L&#:&!$%"1&8"!$&#>3-#"&."&8$14&-3&
$8/%B$&$4I*:*-&8/>03$&/"%&\k(WeT&1B(&RV&8(&
D*%$I/:L& /-& #-=& #:& !$%"1& 2$#2$4"& 0$%"23"*-&
!:4&4:#"38/-!-&2$#"I/-!-&$0:%"H-#"!-L&8$&3#:-
'$2-& %";>3$2$4#:& ."$/%$+:3$& ."0-8"1-& 2& 0%:-
'1:43:!&0$%$;-1>L&/-&8$&'"&8:8*"2-1-&0%-B1-+3$&
0$1&1:*"&0$.3:#:L&Ve(&#"3>"%#"&ReVYL&3"&4$!"-
;:!&5-%$18/:!( YW &l:3%-/&#:&1"=/$&;%0"1&P-3"3-
H:& 0%:428:!& -.& 42:=& 2-%$2J& 8& 82$#-=& 4$!";-=&
0$8:8*-&-3&$4&-*"1-#"38/-=&."2:.3-/$2(&O"&B-&8-&
."'$*$2-1&0%-!:%3$&0$41"'$&."&0$=$4L&#:&3>#3$&
0$*%:B$2"1& 0$!$;& 82$#-=& -*"1-#"38/-=& /$!>3(&
5$&#:&2&A"4$2-&-3&5%:2-8>&*>4-&4$B-1L&/"%&3:&0%:-
8:3:;"L&8"#&8*"&B-1-&$B:&!:8*-&4$B%$&!$*-2-%"3-&
."& 0%-80:2:/& /& $B%"!B-& 0%:4& `"3'%"34:#:!L&
/-& #:& $'%$+"1& 3#-=$2:& -3*:%:8:(& 5"/$& #:& 2$#2$-
4"&l:3%-/&0%:#:1&ZYT&!L&0$!:!B3$&P-3"3;3$&
0$40$%$L&B%:.&/"*:%:&B-&8:&*:+/$&2$#8/$2"1&3"&
bojnem polju.
@:1-/$&4"1#I-&#:&8:.3"!&$4=$4/$2(&5"&2&0%-
2:!& 4:1>& $B8:'"& *%"38"/H-#:L& 0$2:."3:& I:& 8&
0%-0%"2$& 0$=$4"L& 4-01$!"*8/"& 0$81"38*2"& -3&
*%"380$%*& ."1$'& $4& c4-3L& /#:%& #:& B-1$& $;-*3$&
2$#2$4$2$& -.=$4-I;:& $.-%$!"& 0%:8/%B$2"13"&
B"."L&4$&D"H-1&-3&5%:2-8"(&^:0%"2&#:&l:3%-/$-
2"& 2$#8/"& 4:1$2"1"& 3"& ':$'%"P8/$& $!:#:3:!&
0%$8*$%>L&#:&B-1"&."&3#:3$&0%:8/%B$&3>#3"&4$-
B%"&1$'-8*-;3"&0$40$%"(&K:42$!3$&8$&8:&2$#8/-&
0%-4%>+-1-&I:&*%'$2H-&-3&3"#%".1-;3:#I-&4%>'-L&0$&
2:;-3-&3:."+:1:3-&80%:!1#:2"1H-L&/-&8$&$B-;"#3$&
sledili srednjeveškim vojskam. Najprej je bilo
*%:B"&3"#*-&0%-!:%3"&0%:2$.3"&8%:48*2"L&*$%:#&
2$.$2:&-3&2$.3-/:L&0$!:!B3"&0$8*"2/"&8$&B-1-&
tudi sodi za prevoz vina. Tega so za pitje pra-
2-1$!"&!:I"1-&.&2$4$L&/-&#:&B-1"&8-H:%&$0$%:;3"L&
4$4"*:/&"1/$=$1"&0"&3"#&B-&.!"3#I"1&*2:'"3#:&
."&$/>+B:(&MB&*:!&#:&$0".3"&2:1-/"&H:3$23"&
58 Glede na višino zneska in velikost vojvodovega vojaškega kontingenta se termin
ministrantes"4128%-"W%E2)2&2"'%'%(%"'%"4$*V,'3%+"%$,"?202V'2"24/D-/9"'/"?%"'%"
vojake.
59 Riedmann 1977, str. 551–555.
the liturgical equipment. 58 Along with the required
logistical planning and payments to the mercenar-
*3E-& F$66"283%E& ]3%3& "1E$& IB%83238& ]*':& "& %"2O3&
of other factors that required an adequate reserve
of ready cash and an experienced financial service
which provided a good overview of the funds. Even
I3;$%3&b32%C&E3'&$;;&'$&H"8B"-&:3&:"8&'$&>"C&"E&6BF:&
"E&[m-VcS&1I.&QU&E.&;$%&]"O3E&"28&EB>>1*3E&*2&eB23.&
5:3&3a>32E3E-&]:*F:&':3&8B,3&:"8&'$&F$@3%&I3;$%3&
':3& "F'B"1& 6*1*'"%C& $>3%"'*$2E& F$B18& I3O*2-& ]3%3&
taken down by his accountants and rounded off in a
'%"2E>"%32'&%3>$%'-&]:*F:&]"E&8%"]2&B>&"%$B28&:"1;&
"&C3"%&1"'3%-&$2&Uc&e"2B"%C&QcUX&*2&5C%$1. XV Henry
could draw his financial assets from two sources –
his estates and from his Italian allies. In order to
>%$@*83& "2& "83dB"'3& ;$B28"'*$2& ;$%& ':3& F"6>"*O2-&
Henry urgently needed the assistance of his Italian
communes. He received support from Padua and
5%3@*E$-&]:*F:&E:$B18&2$'&F$63&"E&"&EB%>%*E3&"E&I$':&
cities were highly motivated to contribute to the de-
;32F3&"O"*2E'&0"2O%"283-&]:$&]"E&"&':%3"'&'$&':3*%&
*2'3%3E'E.&5:BE-&b32%C&%3F3*@38&YXS&6.-&"&E*O2*;*F"2'&
financial assistance without which he would hardly
have been able to engage himself on the battlefield.
The list of expenses was much longer. Its first part
includes transactions referring to the preparation of
':3&F"6>"*O2-&8*>1$6"'*F&%3>%3E32'"'*$2E&"28&'%"2E-
>$%'&$;&EB>>1C&;%$6&k8*23-&]:*F:&]"E&F13"%1C&':3*%&
EB>>1C&I"E3-&'$&N"F*13&"28&5%3@*E$.&/1':$BO:&b32%CfE&
"%6C&$>3%"'38&$2&"&O3$O%">:*F"11C&1*6*'38&"%3"-&*'&
still needed good logistic support. We may expect that
the troops were also joined by traders and various
$':3%-&O323%"11C&B2]"2'38-&"FF$6>"2C*2O&*28*@*8B-
"1E& ]:$& BEB"11C& ;$11$]38& 638*3@"1& "%6*3E.& P*%E'1C-&
it was necessary to find the appropriate means of
'%"2E>$%'"'*$2-& EBF:& "E& F"%'E& "28& ':3*%& 8%*@3%E.& /&
significant issue was also the transport of wine. This
was mixed with water that was usually contaminat-
38-& C3'-& ':3& "88*'*$2& $;& "1F$:$1& EB>>$E381C& %38BF38&
the risk of infections. There was a large difference in
the price of the wine served to the duke and the most
respectable noblemen to that drank by the rest of the
personnel participating in the campaign.
Staple food that was consumed by all included
bread which was occasionally ordered form Padua
and perhaps partly from bakers from the surround-
*2O& "%3".& H%*2F*>"11C-& *'& F"2& I3& 3E'*6"'38& ':"'& $23&
or two loaves per day pertained to each soldier and
member of the escort. Bread was transported in an
58 Considering the amount of money and the size of the duke’s contingent the term
ministrantes is almost definitely referring to servants or auxiliary personnel and
not to soldiers.
59 Riedmann 1977, pp. 551–555.
M I L I T A R Y H I S T O R Y ! 101

azlika med kakovostnim vinom za vojvodo in
3"#>'1:43:#I:& 01:!8*2$& *:%& *-8*-!& 81"BI-!L& /-&
8$&'"&0-1-&0%:$8*"1-&>4:1:+:3H-&0$=$4"(&
M83$23$&+-2-1$&."&28:&#:&B-1&/%>=(&5:'"&8$&
28"#& 2;"8-=& 3"%$;"1-& -.& A"4$2:L& 4:13$& !$%-
4"&I:&0%-&$/$1-I/-=&0:/-=(&K";:13$&#:&!$'$;:&
0%:42-4:2"*-L& 4"& #:& 28"/:!>& 2$#"/>& -3& ;1"3>&
80%:!8*2"& 0%-0"4"1& 28"#& :3& =1:B:H& 3"& 4"3L&
!$%4"&H:1$&42"(&5%"380$%*-&/%>="&8$&8-&81:4-1-&
2&3:/"#43:23-=&0%:81:4/-=(&h:&0%:4&.";:*/$!&
0$=$4"&#:&l:3%-/&3"%$;-1&8/$%"#&YY(TTT&=1:B-
H:2L&*$2$%&#:&."8:4:1&/"%&ee&2$.$2(&)"3#I-&*%"3-
80$%*-&8$&0%:4&)$38:1-H:&$;-*3$&0%-="#"1-&8/$%"#&
28"/&4"3L&$B;"83$&0"&*>4-&.:1$&2:1-/-L&*"/$&3"&
0%-!:%&eT(TTT&=1:BH:2&2&3:4:1#$L&R(&#>1-#"(&D1"ma
in krma za konje se po drugi strani med
%";>38/-!-& 20-8-& 3:& 0$#"21#"*"& .:1$& 0$'$8*$L&
;:0%"2&#:&B-1$&2&28:#&2$#8/-&2:;&*-8$;&#:.43-=&-3&
*$2$%3-=&+-2"1-(&K"#2:%#:*3:#:&8$&."&$8/%B$&/$3#&
!$%"1-&3"#2:;/%"*&0$8/%B:*-&2$#"/-&-3&*$2$%3-/-&
8"!-L&!$%4"&0"&8$&/%!$&2&."4$8*3-=&/$1-;-3"=&
3"I1-&*>4-&3"&/%"#>L&/#:%&8$&8:&.3"I1-(
6"/$2$8*& =%"3:& $B& %".1-;3-=& 43:=& 1"=/$&
poskusimo oceniti na podlagi vsakodnev-
3-=&-.01";-1(&6>=-3#"&#:&B1"'"#3$&2$#2$4:&28"/&
4"3&$B%:!:3-1"&0$20%:;3$&."&0%-B1-+3$&ST&1B(&
,$1#&0-;1-L&2:;&/$*&0$1$2-H$&H:3:#I-&8$&B-1-&0$-
8*3-& $B%$/-& $B& 0:*/-=L& 0%".3-;3-& $B& 3:4:1#"=&
0"&8/$%"#&I:&:3/%"*&4%"+#-(&c0$I*:2"*-&#:&*%:B"&
*>4-L&4"&8$&2:;#:&3"/>0:&2-3"&-3&/%>="&2$4-1-&
1$;:3$L& /$*& #:& %".2-43$& -.& 8:.3"!"(& MB;"83$&
8$&."&/>=-3#$&3"/>0-1-&I:&!"8*L&8-%&-3&.";-!B:L&
28"#&:3/%"*&*>4-&81"I;-H:(&61#>B&3:>80:1-&$0:%"ciji
in menda slabim razmeram v taboru sredi
!$;2-%3:& %"23-H:& *$%:#& !:4& $B1:'"3#:!& 3-8$&
+-2:1-&0$28:!&I0"%*"38/$(&
6$3;3-& 8:I*:2:/& $4=$4/$2& #:& 0$& 0%:%";>3>&
ZYS&!(&k&1B(&SLY&'( 60 &9&ZYT&!(&0%-=$4/$2&#:&B-1"&
*$%:#& %".1-/"& ."& *$& $B4$B#:L& /-& #:& 3:0$8%:43$&
B%:!:3-1"&B1"'"#3$&2$#2$4:&l:3%-/"L&1:&4$B%-=&
S& !(& K"& 0%2-& 0$'1:4& l:3%-/"& *$%:#& 0$=$4& P--
3"3;3$&3-&B-8*2:3$&$81"B-1(&A%"2"&81-/"&0"&8:&0$-
/"+:L&;:&/&*:!&8*%$I/$!&0%-I*:#:!$&8/$%"#&\ZTT&
!L&0$%"B1#:3-=&2&0%2-=&*%:=&*:43-=&#>3-#"(&A1"-
;-1"&3"#:!3-I/-=&01";&-3&0%:8/%B$2"3#:&/$3*-3gentov
na zbirnem mestu so torej Henrika stali
8/$%"#&I:8*/%"*&2:;&/$*&8"!&0$=$4(&5-&-.4"*/-&8$&
!$;3$& 0%:8:'"1-& 8%:48*2"L& /-& 8$& !>& #-=& 1"=/$&
/%"*/$%$;3$&."'$*$2-1-&-*"1-#"38/-&."2:.3-/-(&
60" 72"*E2)2&,)&%>"8%3*'2&2+-/"ST@"0.9"&/'+%8")%"W'/4/1"W%8%+,"&/3"8%3*'41,>"'%?%1"
ni pravilen.
102 ! V O J A Š K A Z G O D O V I N A
*2'3%@"1&$;&"&;3]&8"CE.&)3;$%3&':3&F"6>"*O2&I3O"2-&
b32%C&$%83%38&"16$E'&XX-SSS&1$"@3E-&]:*F:&6"83&B>&
a cargo that fitted onto as much as 33 carts. Smaller
amounts were brought to Monselice almost on a daily
basis. Larger transports were conducted periodi-
F"11C-&;$%&3a"6>13&$2&NB28"C-&Q&eB1C.&`3;3%32F3E&$2&
:"C&"28&;$883%&;$%&':3&:$%E3E-&$2&':3&$':3%&:"28-&8$&
not occur frequently in the accounting statements.
!$E'&>%$I"I1C-&E$18*3%E&"28&>3%E$2231&%3E>$2E*I13&;$%&
the transportation had to provide these themselves.
H%$I"I1C-&':3C&;$B28&EB;;*F*32'&dB"2'*'*3E&$;&*'&$2&':3&
location itself.
The quality of the rations on various days can be
3E'*6"'38&I"E38&$2&8"*1C&>"C632'E.&_2&"2&"@3%"O3-&
the kitchen of the duke burdened the funds dedicated
for the campaign for 60 lb. per day. More frugal and
half cheaper were the fasting rations each Friday
whereas the food cooked on Sundays was twice as
expensive. It has to be considered that larger pur-
F:"E3E&$;&]*23&"28&I%3"8&]3%3&6"83&E3>"%"'31C-&"E&
*E&3@*832'&;%$6&':3&1*E'.&/'&'*63E-&O%3"E3-&F:33E3&"28&
E>*F3E-& "28& "'& 13"E'& $2F3-& E]33'E-& ]3%3& >B%F:"E38.&
Despite the failure of the operation and presumably
bad conditions in the camp located in midst of
E]"6>C& ;1"'Z1"28E-& ':3& F$28*'*$2E& 8B%*2O& ':3& E*3O3&
were not completely spartan.
The total sum of expenses was calculated to have
"6$B2'38&B>&'$&YXR&6.&m&1I.&R-X&O. 60 With 850 m. of
*2F$63-&':3&8*;;3%32F3&;$%&':*E&>3%*$8-&]:*F:&8*%3F'1C&
IB%83238&':3&;B28E&$;&4B,3&b32%C-&]"E&$21C&R&6.&/'&"&
;*%E'&O1"2F3-&*'&6*O:'&E336&':"'&':3&6*1*'"%C&F"6>"*O2&
8*8&2$'&*6>"*%&b32%CfE&;*2"2F*"1&%3E$B%F3E.&b$]3@3%-&
one can get a clearer idea of the expenditures by
"88*2O&':3&"6$B2'&$;&"16$E'&[-YSS&6.&'$&':*E&EB6-&
which were paid in the first three weeks of June. The
payment of mercenaries’ wages and the supply of the
contingents in the assembly therefore cost Henry almost
six times more than the actual campaign. These
expenses significantly exceeded the resources that he
was provided with by his Italian allies.
It should be emphasised that these accounting
statements certainly do not include all expenses of
the campaign. In particular considering the payment
$;&%3*6IB%E3632'-&831"CE&$@3%&E3@3%"1&C3"%E&$FFB%%38&
*2&*28*@*8B"1&F"E3E.&4*3'%*F:-&':3&)*E:$>&$;&D"@"2'-&
0$2%"8&@$2&/B;32E'3*2-&H3'3%&D*3I32I3%O3%-&/1I%3F:'&
"28&_''$&@$2&_%'32IB%O&"28&bBO$&@$2&5oI3*2&:"8&'$&
wait long for the payment of their expenses – Hugo
@$2&5oI3*2&3@32&B2'*1&!"C&QcUY.&W2&43F36I3%&QcUm-&
60 According to the accounting statements it amounts to 841 m., but this sum is not
correct due to several calculation mistakes.

M0$.$%-*-&#:&*%:B"&*>4-L&4"&%";>38/-&80-8-&I:&
.4"1:;&3:&$B8:'"#$&28:=&8*%$I/$2&0$=$4"(&91"-
8*-&0%-&01";-1-=&$4I/$43-3&8$&2&0$8"!:.3-=&0%--
!:%-=&."!>#"1-&2:;&1:*(&'$&O:2-38/-&H:1$&4$&!"#"&ReVZ(&@$#2$4"&l:-
3%-/&#:&i%:-P>&^%:*:I/:!>&I:&4:H:!B%"&ReVk&
."& 01";:& 3"#:!3-/$2& -3& $4I/$43-3:& 4$1'$2"1&
\VT&!(&i%:-P>&#:&3"%$;-1L&3"#&8:&$B%3:&3"&1#>-
B1#"38/:&8$43-/:L&/-&!>&B$4$&4$&82(&f"/$B"&-.-
01";"1-&RVT&!(L&3"*$&0"&2&0%-=$43#-=&*%:=&1:*-=&
še zaporedne letne obroke po 100 m. 61 Tako so
3:-.01";"3-&3"#:!3-/-&I:&2:;&1:*&$8*"#"1-&2$#2$-
4$2-& >03-/-(& 6$1-/$& #:& B-1$& I:& 4%>'-=& *"/I3-=&
8/%-*-=& 8*%$I/$2L& $& /"*:%-=& 8:& 3:& 2:L& 1"=/$& 1:&
ugibamo. Nedvomno so neuspešni vojaški
podvigi zelo resno obremenili blagajno vojvode
Henrika ter navsezadnje privedli k razpadu
njegove italijanske politike. Ker Padovi ni bil
80$8$B:3& ."'$*$2-*-& 2"%3$8*-L& 8$& 8:& !:I;"3-&
8:0*:!B%"&ReVZ&.&."%$*$&$*%:81-&3#:'$2:&$B1"-
8*-(&Rk(&#>1-#"&ReVW&#:&4$+-2:1&I:&:3&0$%".&_&*:'"&
43:&8$&!:I;"3-&5%:2-8"&."&82$#:'"&$B1"8*3-/"&
sprejeli Cangrandeja. Vendar tudi veronskemu
21"4"%#>&3-&B-1$&>8$#:3$&>+-2"*-&2&*:!&4$8:+/>L&
8"#& #:& +:& 3:/"#& 43-& 0$.3:#:& >!%1& 2& 8>!1#-2-=&
$/$1-I;-3"=L& 3"#2:%#:*3:#:& ."%"4-& 0$81:4-H& ."strupitve.
SV
I#*"4
A$1-*-;3$& %".4%$B1#:3& 8:2:%& X*"1-#:& #:& 2& 0$znem
srednjem veku postal interesno obmo-
;#:L&2&/"*:%:!&8$&8:&."&0%:21"4$&B$#:2"1-&*"/$&
4$!";-&/$*&*>#-&21"4"%#-&-3&2-I#:&01:!8*2$(&O"&
so obeti za ozemeljsko širitev ali vsaj dober
."81>+:/&0%-2"B-1-&*>4-&2:1-/"I:&-3&3"#:!3-I/:&
2$#"/:& -.& 2.=$43$"108/:'"& 0%$8*$%"L& #:& %".>-
!1#-2$&+:&."%"4-&':$'%"P8/:&B1-+-3:(&M&$8:B3-=&
!$*-2"H-#"=&'$%-I/:'"&'%$P"&-3&/$%$I/:'"&2$#-
2$4:L&4"&8:&>*%4-*"&2&5%:2-8>&-3&A"4$2-L&2:!$&
zelo malo. Najverjetneje je šlo predvsem za
0%"'!"*-;3:& 0$*:.:L& 8& /"*:%-!-& 8*"& +:1:1"& -.-
/$%-8*-*-& 0%-1$+3$8*-L& /-& 8$& 8:& #-!"& 3:3"4$!"&
0$3>4-1:L&!"3#&0"&01$4&4$1'$*%"#3:#I:'"&3";%-
*$2"3#"(&MB"&8*"&8:&8&*"/I3$&$41$;-*2-#$&3:0$sredno
vmešala v tekmo s svojim nekdanjim
61 Gradivo za zgodovino Ljubljane v srednjem veku, I, Ljubljana 1956, listina št. 26,
Tirol, 1327 december 10.
62 MHDC IX, listina št. 200, s. l., 1328 september; listina št. 203, Treviso, 1328 september
5; listina št. 258, Treviso, 1329 julij 17; Friedensburg 1899, str. 228.
4B,3&b32%C&E'*11&$]38&K%3*;&@$2&`3B'32I3%O&[US&6.&
for the wages of the mercenaries and reimbursement.
He ordered Greif to turn to the Ljubljana judges who
]$B18&>"C&:*6&QUS&6.&IC&N'.&e"F$IfE&8"C-&"28&':32&
in the following three years subsequent annual instalments
of 100 m. 61 &5:BE-&':3&B2>"*8&63%F32"%*3E&
remained the duke’s creditors for several years. We
can only vaguely estimate how many of such hidden
expenses actually existed which are still unknown to
BE.& g3'-& *'& *E& F13"%& ':"'& ':3E3& B2EBFF3EE;B1& 6*1*'"%C&
endeavours seriously burdened the financial resources
of Duke Henry and eventually resulted in the
downfall of his Italian strategy. As he was not able
'$& 32EB%3& E3FB%*'C& '$& H"8B"-& ':3& F*'*+32E& $%O"2*E38&
"& F$B>& *2& QcUY& '$& $@3%:'%$]& :*E& "B':$%*'C.& _2& Qm&
eB23&QcUV-&:3&3a>3%*32F38&"2$':3%&83;3"'.&_2&':"'&
8"C-& ':3& F*'*+32E& $;& 5%3@*E$& "FF3>'38& 0"2O%"283& "E&
':3*%&%B13%.&g3'-&3@32&':3&G3%$23E3&%B13%&F$B18&2$'&32-
#$C&:*E&"F:*3@3632'-&"E&:3&8*38&"&;3]&8"CE&1"'3%&*2&
EBE>*F*$BE&F*%FB6E'"2F3E-&6$E'&1*,31C&"E&':3&%3EB1'&$;&
poisoning. RU
Conclusion
The politically fragmented north of Italy became
a scene of interest in which local and foreign rulers
and high nobility fought for power. Expectations of
a territorial expansion and lucrative profit invited
also magnates and mercenaries from the eastern al-
>*23&"%3"-&]:*F:&*E&B283%E'"28"I13&8B3&'$&':3&O3$graphic
vicinity. Little is known about the personal
6$'*@"'*$2E& $;& ':3& 0$B2'& $;& K$%*+*"& "28& ':3& 4B,3&
of Carinthia to strengthen their positions in Treviso
"28&H"8B".&!$E'&1*,31C-&':3E3&]3%3&>%"O6"'*F&6$@3E&
through which they wanted to grasp the opportunities
which suddenly presented themselves rather than
being a result of a long-term strategic planning. By
8$*2O&E$-&I$':&I3F"63&*2@$1@38&*2&F$6>3'*'*$2&]*':&
':3*%&;$%63%&"11C&0"2O%"283&8311"&NF"1"-&':$BO:&>%3sumably
they were well aware that meant the possible
outburst of military conflicts.
W2&':3&]"%E&"O"*2E'&':3&G3%$23E3&%B13%-&I$':&b32%C&
WW& $;& K$%*+*"& "28& b32%C& $;& 0"%*2':*"& ;$B28& ':36selves
in an awkward situation. The core of their
estates was geographically quite distant from poten-
'*"1&I"''13;*318E-&]:*F:&"OO%"@"'38&':3&>%3>"%"'*$2E&
for the campaigns. It also made it more difficult to
organise a swift and responsive defence against the
G3%$23E3&"''"F,E-&2$'&'$&632'*$2&':3&>%$I136E&]*':&
61 Gradivo za zgodovino Ljubljane v srednjem veku, I, Ljubljana 1956, document no.
26, Tyrol, 1327 December 10.
62 MHDC IX, document no. 200, s. l., September 1328; document no. 203, Treviso,
1328 september 5; doc. no. 258, Treviso, 1329 July 17; Friedensburg 1899, p. 228.
M I L I T A R Y H I S T O R Y ! 103

."2:.3-/$!&`"3'%"34:#:!&4:11"&DH"1$L&'$*$2$&
0"&8*"&8:&*>4-&."2:4"1"L&4"&B$&*$&0$!:3-1$&-.-
B%>=&2$#"I/-=&80$0"4$2(
@& 2$#3"=& .& 2:%$38/-!& 21"4"%#:!& 8*"& B-1"&
tako Henrik II. Goriški kot Henrik Koroški v
3:>'$43:!& 0$1$+"#>(& f:4%$& 3#>3-=& 0$8:8*-& #:&
B-1$& ':$'%"P8/$& 0%:H:#& B$1#& $44"1#:3$& $4&!$-
+3-=&B$#-I;L&/"%&#:&$2-%"1$&0%-0%"2:&0$=$4$2&-3&
$%'"3-.-%"3#:&$B%"!B:L&/-&B-&8:&0%"2$;"83$&$4-
.-2"1"&3"&2:%$38/:&20"4:L&0"&*>4-&>;-3/$2-*$&
>0%"21#"3#:& 3#>3-=& 3$2-=& -*"1-#"38/-=& 0$8:8*-(&
i$%-I/-&'%$P&#:&/1#>B&B$1#&0-;1:!>&'$80$4"%8/:mu
zaledju s sposobnim in dejavnim vodstvom
3"4$/3"4-1&82$#:&I-B/:&*$;/:&-3&28"#&/%"*/$%$;-
3$& $4B-1& '%$+3#:& `"3'%"34:#"(& 6"/$& >80:I3$&
B-& 8:& %".2-#"1"& 3#:'$2"& 8*%"*:'-#"L& ;:& '"& 3:& B-&
0%:=-*:1"&3:3"43"&8!%*L&3-&!$'$;:&$H:3-*-(
Poseg koroškega vojvode Henrika je po dru-
'-&8*%"3-&/1#>B&2:1-/$0$*:.3-!&0%-0%"2"!&=-*%$&
80$41:*:1(& l:3%-/>& 6$%$I/:!>& 0%-& 20%"I"3#-=&
1$'-8*-/:& 3:& B-& !$'1-& $;-*"*-& 3:80$8$B3$8*-(&
c%:#"1&#-=&#:&.&-.I$1"3$&-3&-./>I:3$&"4!-3-8*%"-
H-#$L&/-&#:&$;-*3$&4:1"1"&*:!:1#-*$(&@:34"%&#:&2:-
1-/-&0$=$4&0$1:*-&ReV\&4:#"38/$&4$8:':1&0%"2&
3"80%$*3-& >;-3:/& $4& +:1:3:'"& _& 80$4/$0"1& #:&
0$1$+"#& 2$#2$4:& l:3%-/"L& /-& #:& -.;%0"1& 82$#"&
8%:48*2"L&3:&4"&B-&3"80%$*3-/>&."4"1&/"/%I3$&
/$1-&I/$4$(&9"$8*"3/-&8&01";-1-&-3&$4I/$43-3"-
!-&3"#:!3-/$2&4"#:#$&81>*-*-L&4"&8$&B-1:&3#:'$-
2:& P-3"3H:& ."%"4-& 0$=$4"& $=%$!1#:3:& I:& 2:;&
1:*L&*$&0"&!>&#:&/$3;3$&$3:!$'$;-1$&0%-0%"2$&
$B%"!B:&2&1:*-=L&/-&8$&81:4-1"(
5"/$&.B-%"3#:&8-1&'$%-I/:'"&'%$P"&/$3:H&1:*"&
ReRW& /$*& 3"*"3;3$& 0$0-8"3-& 0$=$4& l:3%-/"&
6$%$I/:'"&/"+:*"L&/"/$&."01:*:3"&-3&4%"'"&#:&
B-1"&0%-0%"2"&2:;#-=&2$#"I/-=&$0:%"H-#&2&*-8*:!&
;"8>(&c80:I3-&8%:43#:2:I/-&0$2:1#3-/-&*$%:#&3-8$&
B-1-&1:&3"'$38/-&-34-2-4>"13-&B$#:23-/-L&*:!2:;&
0%:428:!&8*%"*:'-L&/-&8$&8:&8-8*:!"*-;3$&>/2"%-
#"1-&.&1$'-8*-/$&-3&2$#3-!-&P-3"3H"!-(&K:81"23-&
/$3:H&$P:3.-2:&3"&)$38:1-H:&1:*"&ReV\&#:&0$-
>;:3L& 2:34"%& 3"8& 3:& 8!:& ."2:8*-& /& 0%:*-%"3$&
negativnim presojam. Razlogov za neuspelo
$0:%"H-#$& #:& B-1$& 2:;L& !:4& 3#-!-& 3:4$81:43$&
izvajanje ali celo pomanjkanje enotnega stra-
*:I/:'"& 3";%*"L& 3:.4%"2$& 0$43:B#:& -3& -.B%>=&
:0-4:!-#L& !$%4"& I:& 0$4H:3#:2"3#:& 3"80%$*3-ka.
Vendar je bil poraz vojvode Henrika pred-
28:!&01$4&;1$2:I/-=&3"0"/L&.!$*3-=&0%:8$#&-3&
0%:!"1$& 80$8$B3:'"& 2$48*2"L& 3-/"/$%& 0"& 3:&
4$/".&81"B-=&.!$'1#-2$8*-&0$.3$8%:43#:2:I/:ga
vojaškega sistema.
104 ! V O J A Š K A Z G O D O V I N A
efficient administration of their new Italian estates.
5:3&0$B2'&$;&K$%*+*"&F$B18-&83E>*'3&"&6$%3&6$83E'&
3F$2$6*F& I"F,O%$B28-& F$6>32E"'3& :*E& ]3",& >$*2'E&
through a capable and active military leadership and
was able to temporarily repel Cangrande’s threats.
How successful his strategy could have continued
to develop if it had not been stopped by his sudden
death is of course impossible to predict.
5:3& *2'3%@32'*$2& $;& 4B,3& b32%C& $;& 0"%*2':*"-&
$2& ':3& $':3%& :"28-& ;"*138& dB*F,1C& 83E>*'3& 1"%O3Z
scale preparations. Henry of Carinthia could not
be reproached with incapability in dealing with
logistics-related issues. He approached them with
a well-trained and experienced administration that
F$6>13'38& ':3*%& ]$%,& 63'*FB1$BE1C.& b$]3@3%-& ':3&
O%3"'& F"6>"*O2& *2& EB663%& QcU[& "F:*3@38& #BE'& ':3&
opposite effect – it undermined Duke Henry’s situation
who had exhausted his resources without having
inflicted any damage to his enemy. The delays
in the payments of wages and reimbursement to the
mercenaries give a hint that his financial resources
:"8&I332&>"%"1CE38&;$%&E3@3%"1&C3"%E-&]:*F:&*2&'B%2&
impeded him from protecting his Italian territories
in the following years.
5:3&%3F%B*'632'&$;&;$%F3E&IC&':3&0$B2'&$;&K$%*+*"&
*2&QcQV&"28&':3&83'"*138&%3F$%8E&$2&':3&F"6>"*O2&$;&
Henry of Carinthia demonstrate how complex and
expensive the organisation of larger-scale military
operations in this time were. Successful medieval
F$66"283%E& ]3%3& 2$'& $21C& *2'B*'*@3& ]"%%*$%E-& IB'&
strategists who systematically dealt with logistics
and military finances. The infamous end of the offen-
E*@3&"O"*2E'&!$2E31*F3&*2&QcU[&>%$@*83E&"2&3aF31132'&
13EE$2&13"%238.&g3'-&*'&E:$B18&2$'&'36>'&BE&'$&8%"]&
exaggerated negative conclusions. There are several
reasons for the failure of the campaign – inconsistent
implementation or even lack of a unified strategic
>1"2-& B2:3"1':C& F1*6"'3& "28& 3>*836*F& $B'IB%E'-& $%&
h&>%$I"I1C&h&B283%3E'*6"'*$2&$;&':3&3236C.&g3'-&':3&
83;3"'&$;&4B,3&b32%C&]"E&"&%3EB1'&$;&:B6"2&3%%$%-&
wrong judgement and an inadequate leadership. But
it is by no means proof of poor capabilities of the late
medieval military system.
Summary
Most military operations in the Middle Ages did
2$'&:"@3&':3&F:"%"F'3%&$;&'$'"1&]"%-&IB'&]3%3&%"':3%&
temporarily and geographically limited campaigns
]*':&':3&$I#3F'*@3&'$&83E'%$C&':3&3236*3Ef&3E'"'3E&"28-&
':BE-&]3",32&':3*%&;*2"2F*"1&;$B28"'*$2E.&W2&':3&Q[ th
F32'B%C-&EBF:&63':$8E&$;&]"%;"%3&]3%3&>"%'*FB1"%1C&
widespread in Northern Italy. Foreign mercenaries

$,0"5"#
@:;-3"& 2$#"I/-=& $0:%"H-#& 2& 8%:43#:!& 2:/>&
3-& -!:1"& .3";"#"& *$*"13:'"& 80$0"4"L& *:!2:;&
;"8$23$& -3& ':$'%"P8/$& $!:#:3-=& 0$=$4$2L&
/"*:%-=&0$'1"2-*:3&H-1#&#:&B-1$&$0>8*$I:3#:&3"-
80%$*3-/$2-=&0$8:8*-&*:%&8&*:!&81"B-*:2&3#:'$-
2:&'$80$4"%8/:&!$;-(&@&R\(&8*(&#:&B-1$&*"/I3$&
bojevanje najbolj razširjeno v severni Italiji. V
3#:!&8$&8:&!3$+-;3$&>4:#8*2$2"1-&*>#-&3"#:!3--
/-L&.1"8*-&*-8*-&-.&I-%I:'"&3:!I/:'"&0%$8*$%"&*:%&
*>4-&81$2:38/-=&4:+:1(&
@&42"#8:*-=&1:*-=&R\(&8*(&8$&8:&2$#"/-&-.&81$-
2:38/:'"& 0%$8*$%"& -3& B1-+3#:& $/$1-H:& 0$8:B:#&
!3$+-;3$&>4:1:+-1-&42:=&4$B%$&4$/>!:3*-%"-
3-=&0$=$4$2&l:3%-/"&i$%-I/:'"&-3&/$%$I/:'"&
vojvode Henrika proti veronskemu vladarju
`"3'%"34:#>& 4:11"& DH"1-L& /-& #:& *:4"#& 0$8/>I"1&
%".I-%-*-&$B1"8*&3"4&A"4$2$L&5%:2-8$&-3&$/$1-I/:&
0$8:8*-(& i$%-I/-& '%$P& l:3%-/& 8-& #:& 2& *:!& 80$-
%>&0%-4$B-1&$41-;:3&>'1:4L&8"#&#:&"2'>8*"&ReVT&
uspešno razbremenil oblegano Padovo in v
protinapadu povsem razbil veronsko vojsko.
Še ambicioznejšo italijansko politiko je vodil
/$%$I/-&2$#2$4"&l:3%-/L&*-*>1"%3-&;:I/-&/%"1#L&/-&
#:&0$&8!%*-&'%$P"&i$%-I/:'"&$8*"1&."43#-&B%"3-lec
Padove in Trevisa pred vpadi Cangrandeja.
A$1:'&$B8:+3-=&4-01$!"*8/-=&0%-."4:2"3#&#:&B-1&
2$#2$4"&l:3%-/&$'%$+:3:&0$8:8*-&0%-8-1#:3&2"rovati
tudi z vojaško silo. Postopno pošiljanje
!"3#I-=&3"#:!3-I/-=&:3$*&3-&."'$*$2-1$&."4$-
8*3:&2"%3$8*-L&."*$&#:&l:3%-/&1:*"&ReV\&/$3;3$&
0%-0%"2-1&2:1-/&0$=$4&0%$*-&!:8*>&)$38:1-H:(&
Zaradi nepravilne strateške presoje in mo-
;2-%3:'"& .:!1#-I;"L& /#:%& 8$& 2$#8/$& .4:8:*/"1:&
B$1:.3-L&#:&$P:3.-2"&+:&0$&*%:=&*:43-=&0%$0"-
41"L&3:&4"&B-&4$8:'1"&/"*:%:'"&$4&."8*"21#:3-=&
H-1#:2(&A$=$4&0"&#:&."&2$#"I/$&.'$4$2-3$&2:3-
4"%1:&.:1$&."3-!-2L&8"#&$=%"3#:3-&%";>38/-&80-8-&
3"*"3;3$&0$0-8>#:#$&8*%$I/:&H:1$*3:&$0:%"H-#:&
*:%&3";-3&.B-%"3#"&:3$*&-3&P-3"3;3-=&8%:48*:2L&
$!$'$;"#$&0"&*>4-&4$B:%&20$'1:4&2&1$'-8*-;3$&
0$40$%$&2:;*-8$;'1"2:&2$#8/:(&5$&#:&=/%"*-&0%-
2$2%8*:3&4$/".L&4"&#:&B-1$&3";%*$2"3#:&2$#"I/-=&
$0:%"H-#& 2& 0$.3:!& 8%:43#:!& 2:/>& ."=*:23"&
3"1$'"L&/-&8$&8:&#:&2$#8/$2$4#:&1$*:2"1-&3";%*3$L&
$B&0$!$;-&I$1"3:'"&>%"43-I/:'"&$8:B#"L&/-&#:&
8/%B:1$&."&P-3"3H:&-3&1$'-8*-/$(
6"EE*@31C& >"%'*F*>"'38& *2& ':36-& *2& >"%'*FB1"%& ':3&
ones from the wider German area including the
Slovenian lands.
In the first twenty years of the 14 th & F32'B%C-& "&
vast number of soldiers from the Slovenian territory
and the nearby surroundings participated in
']$&]311Z8$FB632'38&F"6>"*O2E&$;&b32%C&$;&K$%*+*"&
and Duke Henry of Carinthia against the Veronese
%B13%&0"2O%"283&8311"&NF"1"-&]:$&"'&':"'&'*63&'%*38&
'$& E>%3"8& :*E& >$]3%& $@3%& H"8B"-& 5%3@*E$& "28& ':3&
EB%%$B28*2O& 3E'"'3E.& 0$B2'& b32%C& $;& K$%*+*"& ]$2&
O%3"'&%3E>3F'&*2&':*E&F$2;1*F'-&"E&*2&/BOBE'&QcUS&:3&
successfully relieved the besieged Padua and completely
destroyed the Veronese armed forces in a
counter-attack.
A more ambitious Italian policy was led by Duke
b32%C&$;&0"%*2':*"-&':3&'*'B1"%&)$:36*"2&,*2O-&]:$&
";'3%& ':3& 83"':& $;& ':3& 0$B2'& $;& K$%*+*"& %36"*238&
the last defender of Padua and Treviso against
Cangrande’s incursions. Along with his diplomatic
3283"@$B%E-& 4B,3& b32%C& :"8& '$& BE3& 6*1*'"%C& ;$%F3&
to protect the threatened estates. As piecemeal commitment
of smaller mercenary units did not provide
EB;;*F*32'& E3FB%*'C-& b32%C& ;*2"11C& >%3>"%38& "& 1"%O3&
F"6>"*O2&"O"*2E'&':3&'$]2&$;&!$2E31*F3&*2&QcU[.&
As a result of wrong strategic assessment and
swampy terrain where the units were decimated by
8*E3"E3-&':3&$;;32E*@3&;"*138&";'3%&':%33&]33,E&]*':out
achieving any of the set objectives. The campaign
*E& 2$23':313EE-& "2& *2'3%3E'*2O& 3a"6>13& $;& 638*3@"1&
military planning since the preserved accounts give a
detailed description of the expenses of the entire op-
3%"'*$2-&':3&63':$8&$;&O"':3%*2O&B2*'E&"28&;*2"2F*"1&
"EE3'E-& "28& "1E$& >%$@*83& "& %36"%,"I13& *2E*O:'& *2'$&
the logistic support of an army consisting of several
':$BE"28&636I3%E.&N*6B1'"23$BE1C-&*'&>%$@*83E&F%Bcial
evidence that the planning of military operations
in the Late Middle Ages was a demanding task
which was approached by commanders in a planned
manner with the assistance of trained administration
personnel that took care of financial and logistical
matters.
M I L I T A R Y H I S T O R Y ! 105

106 ! V O J A Š K A Z G O D O V I N A

U0,*"%"#
K"*+'#)&81$N+"&)-&-7+":-)35,$&
The Counts of Cilli (Celje) and Mercenarism
!
/ %+L )'$([+%*
doktor zgodovinskih znanosti, asistent za starejšo slovensko zgodovino,
->A54C\6'5'(2;A9']A=1\1KOF6'K6F;=N4N69'%YF4C3456'79'8:::'(2;6W'4?@6A=B'26>4\D@=A>6CGH;4OND6C>4ODOA
^1"3:/&$B%"23"2"&%".1-;3:&2-4-/:&3"#:!3--
I*2"L&/-&8$&201-2"1-&3"&'$80$4"%8/-&-3&4%>+B:-
3-&%".2$#&%$4B-3:&H:1#8/-=&'%$P$2&2&Re(&-3&R\(&
8*$1:*#>(& K"#:!3-I*2$& #:& %".1-;3-!& 0%-0"43--
/$!&%$4B-3:&0$&:3-&8*%"3-&$!$'$;-1$L&4"&8$&8-&
0%-4$B-1-&-3&>*%4-1-&2:1-/&4%>+B:3-&>'1:4L&/-&#:&
0%:8:'"1&8$H-"13-&8*"*>8&%$4B-3:L&0$&4%>'-&8*%"-
3-& 8$& H:1#8/-& '%$P#:& 8& 0%:!-I1#:3-!& 21"'"3#:!&
8%:48*:2L& 0%-4$B1#:3-=& .& 3"#:!3-I*2$!L& 2.0$-
8*"2-1-&!$;3$&'$80$4"%8/$&0$41"'$L&=/%"*-&0"&
8$&8-&.'%"4-1-&!$;3$&8$H-"13$&!%:+$&8*-/$2L&/-&
8$& 8:'"1-& 4$& >'1:43-=& /%"1#:2-=& %$4B-3(& 5"/$&
8$& >8*2"%-1-& !$;3:& '$80$4"%8/:& -3& 4%>+B:3:&
temelje za poznejši vzpon rodbine.
!(52.#$& 6$1$'$7& H:1#8/-& '%$P#:L& 0$.3-& 8%:-
43#-&2:/L&3"#:!3-I*2$L&2$#8/"L&/%-+"%8/-&0$=$4L&
A%>8-#"L&'%"4$2-L&4-01$!"*8/-&8*-/-(
F3':1B:%*& -.& E4!$3*"L& B:3:4-/*-3:HL& /-& #:&
/$3:H& Re(& -3& 2& 0%2-=& 4:8:*1:*#-=& R\(& 8*$1:*#"&
deloval na Štajerskem in je v admontskem sa-
!$8*"3>&$0%"21#"1&P>3/H-#$&$0"*"L&8:&#:&2&:3:!&
$4& 82$#-=& I*:2-13-=& 80-8$2& >/2"%#"1& *>4-& .& 1"-
8*3$8*!-L& /-& 3"#& B-& #-=& -!:1& 21"4"%( 1 & ,:8:4-1$L&
/-&#:&3"8*"1$&$/%$'&1:*"&ReTTL&#:&3"81$2-1&Speculum
virtutum moralium. U Posvetil ga je sinovom
avstrijskega vojvode in nemškega kralja
E1B%:=*"&X(&l"B8B>%I/:'"(&A$&3#:'$2:!&0%:0%--
;"3#>L&/-&8-H:%&*:!:1#-&+:&3"&"3*-;3-=&.'1:4-=L&
vladarjev ne naredita pripadnost plemstvu ali
/%-L& "!0"/& 0%:428:!& 2%1-3:(& A$1:'& !$4%$8*-&
1 O Engelbertu in njegovem opusu prim. Kurt Ruh idr. (ur.), Die deutsche Literatur
des Mittealters; Verfasserlexikon, II, Berlin 1981, str. 535–549.
Q" G8,),3'%",W+%-%")/14)%"'/"2D4)%-%."c+,'%"),41%'%"2D-%&%"-/"&f";/8'>%8+"7/W9"Bibliotheca
ascetica antiquo-nova, III, Ratisbonae 1723, str. 1–498.
Abstract
The article addresses various aspects of mercenarism
which influenced the economic and social development
of the Counts of Cilli in the 13 th and 14 th cen-
'B%C.&_2&$23&:"28&63%F32"%*E6&>%$@*838&':3&0$B2'E&
of Cilli with the opportunity to gain and consolidate
their social reputation which far exceeded the social
E'"'BE&$;&':3&;"6*1C.&_2&':3&$':3%&:"28-&':3&0$B2'E&
$;&0*11*&831*I3%"'31C&*2@3E'38&':3&E$B%F3E-&3"%238&]*':&
63%F32"%*E6& "F'*@*'*3E-& ':BE& ;$%6*2O& "& E'%$2O& 3F$nomic
base and establishing a firm social network of
contacts which included distinguished royal families.
The result was strong economic and social foundations
which served as a basis for the subsequent rise
of the family.
Key words:&':3&0$B2'E&$;&0*11*-&D"'3&!*8813&/O3E-&
63%F32"%*E6-& "%6C-& F%BE"83E-& H%BEE*"-& F"E'13E-& 8*Z
plomatic relations.
>%$a*6"'31C&
QcSS-& ]"E& 32'*'138& N>3FB1B6& @*%'B'B6& 6$%"1*B6- U
and was dedicated to the sons of Albrecht I of
b"IEIB%O-&4B,3&$;&/BE'%*"&"28&K3%6"2&7*2O.&W2&:*E&
$>*2*$2-& I"E38& $2& "2F*32'& 3a"6>13E-& "2& *28*@*8B"1&
does not become a ruler due to his noble origin or
"%*E'$F%"'& I1$$8-& IB'& 6$E'1C& 8B3& '$& :*E& dB"1*'*3E.&
)3E*83E&]*E8$6&9>%B832'*"=-&%*O:'3$BE23EE&9*BE'*'*"=&
1 On Engelbert and his opus, Kurt Ruh et al. (ed.), Die deutsche Literatur des Mittealters;
Verfasserlexikon, II, Berlin 1981, pp. 535–549.
Q" "U"=8,),=%$",44*/"2J")>/")/j)"+2/4"'2)"/j,4)."e>/"2'$P"?8,')/+"=2?P",4",'f";/8'>%8+"7/W9"
Bibliotheca ascetica antiquo-nova, III, Ratisbonae 1723, pp. 1–498.
M I L I T A R Y H I S T O R Y ! 107

(prudentia?L&0%"2-;3$8*-&7iustitia) in zmernosti
(temperantia) je najvidnejše mesto zasedala
fortitudoL&3:>8*%"I3$8*L&0$'>!( 3 Naštete vrli-
3:&3"#&3:&B-&B-1:&1:&$41-/:&21"4"%#"L&"!0"/&8$&8:&
0%:3"I"1:&*>4-&0$&=-:%"%=-;3-&1:8*2-H-&3"2.4$1(&
)$4%$8*L&0%"2-;3$8*L&.!:%3$8*&-3&3:>8*%"I3$8*&
3"#&B-&B-1:&_&28"#&*:$%:*-;3$&_&*>4-&$41-/:&3-+#:ga
plemstva.
@8"/"& $4& *:=& 2%1-3& 8:& #:& 1"=/$& -.%".-1"& 2&
%".1-;3-=&$B1-/"=&-3&$B&%".1-;3-=&0%-1$+3$8*-=(&
)$4%$8*& #:& 01:!-;"& >8!:%#"1"& 0%-& $41$;"3#>L&
0%"2-;3$8*& 8:& #:& /"."1"& 0%-& 3#:'$2:!& %"23"-
3#>&.&4%>'-!-L&.!:%3$8*&'"&#:&2$4-1"&8/$.-&+-vljenjske
skušnjave. Fortitudo #:&B-1"&4%>'";3"&
$4& 0%2-=& *%:=& 2%1-3(& 6"."1"& 8:& #:& 2:1-/$& B$1#&
:%>0*-23$& -3& B-1"& !$'$;:& 0%"2& ."*$& 3"#B1-+#"&
0$20%:;3:!>&01:!-;>(&,-*-&0$'>!:3&#:&0$!:-
3-1$&B-*-&3:>8*%"I:3&B$#:23-/L&B%:.&8*%"=>&.%:ti
smrti v obraz. Fortitudo 8:&#:&3"#B$1#&$;-*3$&
pokazala v neposrednem boju s stvarnim ali
namišljenim nasprotnikom. Vojskovanje je bilo
pomemben del srednjeveškega vsakdana. Pugnatores
8$&B-1-&_&80:*&+:&0$&"3*-;3:!&.'1:4>&
_&:4:3&$4&8*:B%$2&4%>+B:(&,-*-&2$#"/&#:&=/%"*-&
0$!:3-1$&*>4-&B-*-&82$B$4:3L&82$B$43$&%".0$-
1"'"*-&8&82$#-!&-3&.&+-21#:3#:!&82$#:'"&3"80%$-
*3-/"(& @$#8/$2"3#:& #:& B-1$& 0%-2-1:'-#L& /-& 3-& B-1&
dan vsakomur. Od druge polovice 13. stoletja
je bilo njegov sestavni del najemništvo.
h$23:I/-& 8:& /$*& 3"#:!3-/-& 0$#"2-#$& 2& 2-%-=&
+:&4$/"#&.'$4"#(&O:43"&0$'$4B"L&/-&8*"&#$&!"#"&
RVSV&8/1:3-1"&4-&4$-
1$;B:&2&0$'$4B-&4$0>I;"#$&*$&!$+3$8*(&A$1:'&
$83$23:'"&4$'$2$%"L&4"&B-L&;:&B-&:4:3&$4&3#-#>&
>!%1& B%:.& 4:4-;:2L& 28:& 1#>4-L& 4$B%-3:L& 0$8:-
8*-& -3& 8*2"%-& 0$4:4$2"1& 0%:+-2:1-L& 8*"& 3%"2'*"=-&;$%'*'B8$-&I$1823EE-&
F$B%"O3- 3 was among the most important ones. These
qualities should not have been inherent only to rul-
3%E-&IB'&'%"2E>$E38&8$]2&':3&]:$13&:*3%"%F:*F"1&1*23.&
j*E8$6-& %*O:'3$BE23EE-& '36>3%"2F3& "28& I$1823EE&
E:$B18&I3-&"'&13"E'&*2&':3$%C-&'C>*F"1&"1E$&$;&':3&1$]&
aristocracy.
Each of these qualities could be reflected in various
forms and at various opportunities. Wisdom
guided an aristocrat when making decisions; his
righteousness was reflected in his dealing with other
>3$>13-& ]:*13& '36>3%"2F3& :31>38& :*6& '$& %3E*E'& ':3&
temptations of life. Fortitudo was different from the
first three values. It was much more eruptive and
perhaps due to this also the closest to an average
aristocrat. To be courageous meant to be a fearless
F$6I"'"2'-&'$&;"F3&83"':&]*':$B'&;3"%.&P$%'*'B8$&]"E&
most clearly reflected in direct combat with a real
or imaginary opponent. Warfare was an important
part of Medieval everyday life. Following the ancient
3a"6>13-&>BO2"'$%3E&>%3E32'38&$23&$;&':3&>*11"%E&$;&
the society. Being a soldier also meant to be free and
to freely manage your own life and the life of your
$>>$232'.&j"%;"%3&]"E&"&>%*@*13O3-&2$'&O*@32&'$&3@3ryone.
From the second half of the 13 th &F32'B%C&$2-&*'E&
integral part was also mercenarism.
N$B%F3E&E:$]&':"'&':3&P%3*32&$;&N"223,&9n$@23,=&
%31"'*@31C&3"%1C&">>3"%&"E&63%F32"%*3E.&_2&':3&I"E*E&
$;&"&:3%38*'"%C&F$2'%"F'-&F$2F1B838&*2&!"C&QURU&IC&
D3$>$18&WWW&$;&N"223,&"28&:*E&I%$':3%&k1%*F:&WW-&]3&
can assume that they were familiar with mercenarism.
Not only the legal act of concluding a contract
h&EBF:&F$2'%"F'E-&$;'32&*2&"&;$%6&$;&"&'3E'"632'-&]3%3&
in the following centuries usually concluded by the
Counts of Cilli before going on a military campaign –
but also the provisions of the contract allow this possibility.
Apart from a basic agreement stating that if
3*':3%&8*3E&]*':$B'&:3*%E-&"11&':3&>3$>13-&O$$8E-&>%$>-
3%'*3E&"28&':*2OE&"%3&*2:3%*'38&IC&':3&$':3%-&D3$>$18&
and Ulrich included also an unusual provision from
which it is clear that the brothers did not stick only
'$&':3*%&:$631"28-&IB'&':"'&':3*%&83E'*2"'*$2E&F$B18&
also be rather remote. The contract explicitly states
that in the event of the death of one of the brothers
the funeral must be handled by the other. If either
dies in a far-away land and the transport of his body
*E& '$$& 3a>32E*@3-& ':3& $':3%& *E& $I1*O38& '$& 8$2"'3& YS&
marks denarii to various churches in the vicinity in
return for the funeral. 4 &_I@*$BE1C&':3&I%$':3%E&;$B28&
3 A short revision of the work is in: Ruh 1981, str. 546.
4 Dušan Kos, Celjska knjiga listin, I, Ljubljana, Celje 1996, p. 31. » ... Sed si locus
ille in tanta remocione fuerit, quod supervivens eundem locum ubi prius mortuus
defunctus ex nobis fuerit absque gravi dispendio attingere non valebit det Ober-

il prevoz njegovega trupla do doma povezan s
0%:2:1-/-!-&8*%$I/-L&8:&#:&0%:+-2:1-&$B2:."1L&4"&
B$&2&."!:3$&."&0$'%:B&3"!:3-1&%".1-;3-!&H:%-
/2:3-!&-38*-*>H-#"!&2&$/$1-H-&h$23:/"&8/>03$&
80 mark denarijev. 4 & M;-*3$& 8:& *$%:#& B%"*$!"&
smrt v oddaljenem kraju le ni zdela povsem
3:!$'$;"&-3&8*"&2&$0$%$/-&0%:42-4:1"&*>4-&*$&
!$+3$8*(&@:%#:*3$&*>4-&!$*-2&3"&0:;"*>&c1%-/"&
XX(&h$23:I/:'"&3-&0$28:!&3"/1#>;:3(&K"&*%-/$-
*3:!& 0:;"*3:!& 0$1#>& #:& 3"!%:;& >0$4$B1#:3&
2-*:.L& /-& 2& 4:83-H-& 2-=*-& !:;L& 2& 1:2-H-& 0"& 4%+-&
I;-*& .& +$23:I/-!& '%B$!(& 5"& !$*-2& 3"& 0:;"*>&
vsekakor nakazuje tudi dejavnost njegovega
imetnika.
A%2-;&8$&h$23:I/-&/$*&>4:1:+:3H-&2$#"I/:'"&
0$=$4"& _& 2:%#:*3$& /$*& 3"#:!3-/-& _& $!:3#"#$&
1:*"&RVkZ(&K:!I/-&/%"1#&C>4$1P&l"B8B>%I/-&#:&
*:4"#&8/1:3-1&4$/$3;3$&$B%";>3"*-&.&3"80%$*3--
/$!& 2& 2.=$43$"108/-=& 4:+:1"=L& ;:I/-!& /%"-
1#:!&M*$/"%#:!&A%:!g81$!(&M*$/"%&#:&3"!%:;&
izkoristil obdobje interregnuma in se posto-
03$& 0$1"8*-1& $B1"8*-& 2& E28*%-#-L& 3"& Q*"#:%8/:!L&
6$%$I/:!&-3&6%"3#8/:!(&M!:3#:3:&4:+:1:&8$&
0$& -.>!%*#>& %$4B-3& ,"B:3B:%+"3$2& RV\S& -3&
D0"3=:-!$2&RVSW&$8*"1:&B%:.&4:+:13-=&'$80$-
4$2L&/"%&#:&M*$/"%#>&4"1$&4$2$1#&!"3:2%8/:'"&
0%$8*$%"L&4"&8:&#:&4:13$&8&8-1$L&4:13$&0%:/&4:-
43-=&0$'$4B&>2:1#"2-1&/$*&3#-=$2&3"81:43-/(&5$&
8:2:4"&3-&B-1$&0$&2$1#-&/%"1#>&C>4$1P>L&/-&#:&2&
*:=& 4:+:1"=& 2-4:1& !$+3$8*& ."& /%:0-*:2& 82$#:&
21"4"%8/:& $B1"8*-(& M41$;-1:3& 80$0"4& !:4& C>-
4$1P$2-!-& 0%-2%+:3H-& -3& M*$/"%#:!& #:& B-1& *-8*-&
"2'>8*"&RVkZ&0%-&Od%3/%>*>(&,-*/:&8:&#:&3"&C>-
4$1P$2-&8*%"3-&>4:1:+-1&*>4-&4-&8/>0-3"&I*"#:%8/-=&01:!--
;:2L&/-&'"&#:&>#:1"&-3&>B-1"(&5=$!"8&FB:34$%P:%&
#:&42:8*$&1:*&0$.3:#:&2&82$#-&E28*%-#8/-&/%$3-/-&
."0-8"1L&4"&#:&B-1&!:4&$!:3#:3-!-&Q*"#:%H-&*>4-&
h$23:I/-L&/-&#:&8/>0"#&8&*$2"%-I-&*"/$&_&/$*&8$&
4 Dušan Kos, Celjska knjiga listin, I, Ljubljana, Celje 1996, str. 31. » ... Sed si locus
ille in tanta remocione fuerit, quod supervivens eundem locum ubi prius mortuus
defunctus ex nobis fuerit absque gravi dispendio attingere non valebit det Obernburgensi
monasterio quinquaginta marca, domusi de Geyrav decem marcas,
domui de Seicz decem marcas domusi de Studenicz decem marcas, plebi de
Vrazlaucz decem marcas, plebi de Ponikel decem marcas monete pradicte.«
5 Kos 1996, str. 48.
N$*$UPhotoJ&f$+:&l"3H
the possibility of dying in a far-away land completely
possible and thus predicted it in their will. It is
also possible that the motif on the seal of Ulrich II of
Sannek is not completely accidental. A triangle seal
features a knight with a sword in his left hand and a
shield with the Sannek coat of arms in his left hand.
Such a motif on the seal ultimately indicated the activity
of its owner.
D*"%-&'%"4&3"4&`:1#:!&$4&#>'$2.=$4"
_18&F"E'13&"I$@3&031#3&;%$6&E$B':Z3"E'
As participants on a military campaign the Freien
$;&N"223,&"%3-&>%$I"I1C&"E&63%F32"%*3E-&632'*$238&
;$%&':3&;*%E'&'*63&*2&QUmY&]:32&K3%6"2&7*2O&`B8$1;&
of Habsburg decided to have done with his rivalry
*2&':3&$]3%& *2& /BE'%*"-& N'C%*"-&
Carinthia and Carniola. Following the extinction of
the Spanheims and Babenbergs these countries were
13;'& ]*':$B'& ':3*%& >%$@*2F*"1& 8B,3E.& _''$,"%& WW& ]"E&
':BE&O*@32&32$BO:&6"23B@3%&E>"F3&'$-&>"%'*"11C&]*':&
;$%F3&"28&>"%'*"11C&':%$BO:&:3%38*'"%C&F$2'%"F'E-&3Etablish
himself as their heir. This was of course not
;"@$B%38&IC&7*2O&`B8$1;&]:$&E"]&*2&':3E3&1"28E&"&
possibility to enhance his power. A decisive battle be-
']332&`B8$1;&"28&_''$,"%&WWfE&"%6*3E&'$$,&>1"F3&*2&
/BOBE'& QUmY& 23"%& 4o%2,%B'.& D3$>$18& WW& $;& N"223,&
$2&':3&E*83&$;&7*2O&`B8$1;-&"1E$&>"%'*F*>"'38&*2&':3&
I"''13.&)3;$%3&:*E&83>"%'B%3&:3-&"E&E'"'38&IC&:*6&*2&
nburgensi monasterio quinquaginta marca, domusi de Geyrav decem marcas,
domui de Seicz decem marcas domusi de Studenicz decem marcas, plebi de
Vrazlaucz decem marcas, plebi de Ponikel decem marcas monete pradicte.«
M I L I T A R Y H I S T O R Y ! 109

Otokarju na njegovo moledovanje za usmilje-
3#:& $4'$2$%-1-& ."81:4$2"1H-& _& !"I;:2"1& 3"8-1-
3$&8!%*&82$#:'"&8*"3$28/:'"&*$2"%-I"&D-'P%-4"&
Marenberškega. 6
V prvi polovici 14. stoletja se je vojaška
4:#"23$8*& h$23:I/-=& 3"2:.$2"1"& 0%:428:!&
3"& l"B8B>%+"3:(& @& 4$'"#"3#:& $B& 80$0"4>& ."&
;:I/$& /%$3$& !:4& l"B8B>%+"3-& -3& /$%$I/-!&
2$#2$4$& l:3%-/$!& #:& B-1& c1%-/& XX(& h$23:I/-&
2/1#>;:3& +:& $4& .";:*/"(& D/>0"#& .& 3:/"*:%-!-&
/$%$I/-!-&01:!-;-&8:&#:&2:%#:*3$&>4:1:+-1&0$%$-
/:&l:3%-/"&6$%$I/:'"&-3&E3:L&8:8*%:&;:I/:'"&
/%"1#"&@"H1"2"&XXX(L&Re(&P:B%>"%#"&ReTS&2&A%"'-(&
c1%-/&#:&B-1&3"!%:;&/$3:H&P:B%>"%#"&*-8*:'"&1:*"&
2&0"#&.&3:-
/"*:%-!-&4%>'-!-&01:!-;-&0$*%4-1L&4"&#:&l:3%-/&
+:3-& E3-& 0$4"%-1& !:8*$& l"11& 3"& 5-%$18/:!& -3&
nekatere druge posesti. 7 &6"/$&8$&B-1-&h$23:I/-&
201:*:3-& 2& 0$*:/& 2$#3:L& /-& #:& -.B%>=3-1"& #:8:-
3-& ReTk& 0$& -.2$1-*2-& l:3%-/"& ."& ;:I/:'"& /%"-
1#"L& -.& 2-%$2& 3-& #"83$& %".2-43$(& M=%"3#:3-& 8*"&
1:&42:&0$4%$B3$8*-L&/-&0"&#"83$&0$*%#>#:*"L&4"&
#:&c1%-/&2&80$0"4-=&8$4:1$2"1&3"&8*%"3-&l"B8-
B>%+"3$2(&E0%-1"&ReTZ&#:&3"!%:;&"28*%-#8/:!>&
2$#2$4-&N%-4:%-/>&_&/$*&0%"2-&8"!&2&1-8*-3-L&0$&
3"82:*>&82$#-=&0%-#"*:1#:2&_&-.%$;-1&82$#$&"1$4--
"13$& 0$8:8*& '%"4$2"& h$23:/& -3& M8*%$2-H$& *:%&
stolpa Šenek in Libenštajn in vse skupaj takoj
3"*$&$4&N%-4:%-/"&4$B-1&3"."#&2&P:24L&8&;-!:%&#:&
8*$0-1&2&2"."13-&$43$8&8&l"B8B>%+"3-( 8 Drugo
0$4%$B3$8*&$&21$'-&h$23:I/-=&2&*-8*:!&$B4$-
B#>&0%-3"I"&M*$/"%&-.&i:>1:(&@&82$#-&E28*%-#8/-&
%-!"3-& /%$3-/-& 3"!%:;& 3"& /%"*/$& 0$%$;"L& 4"&
je avgusta 1308 po sklenitvi miru med sprti-
!"&8*%"3:!"&2$#2$4"&N%-4:%-/&-.%$;-1&c1%-/>&2&
upravo pred kratkim osvojeni grad in mesto
Slovenj Gradec. W
@&4:8:*1:*#-=L&/-&8$&81:4-1"L&8$&h$23:I/-&_&*:-
4"#& +:& /$*& 3#-=$2-& 2"."1-& _& *:83$& 8$4:1$2"1-& 8&
l"B8B>%+"3-L&;:!>%&1"=/$&81:4-!$&0%:428:!&
po listinskem gradivu. Tako je leta 1330 ali
ReeR&N%-4:%-/&h$23:I/-&8$4:1$2"1&2&B$#-=&0%$*-&
,"2"%8/-L&."&/"%&#:&1:*"&ReeR&4$B-1&\T&!"%/&8%:bra.
10 &D$4:1$2"1-&8$&*>4-&2&80$0"4-=&!:4&l"B8-
B>%+"3-& -3& /8:!B>%+"3-& 1:*"& ReeY(& A$2$4&
."&80$%&#:&B-1&4-01$!"*8/-&!"3:2:%&"28*%-#8/-=&
6 Alphons Lhotsky (ur.), Thomas Ebendorfer, Cronica Austriae; Monumenta Germaniae
Historica, Scriptores rerum Germanicarum, N.S. XIII, Berlin 1967, str.
149–150.
7 Kos 1996, str. 73.
8 Kos 1996, str. 80.
9 Joseph Seemüller (ur.), Ottokars Österreichische Reimchronik; Monumenta
Germaniae Historica, Deutsche Chroniken, V/2, München 1980 (ponatis), verz
95.642–95.654.
10 Kos 1996, str. 131.
110 ! V O J A Š K A Z G O D O V I N A
':3&'3E'"632'-&Ñ'*632E&23&*2&8*F'$&>%31*$&$FFB6I3%36&
"B'&"1*dB$&EBI*'$&F"EB&*2'3%*%36z-&"]"%838&':3&6$2astery
in Gornji Grad with the patronage over the
>"%*E:&*2&)%"E1$@A3. 5 According to sources his contribution
to the battle was not negligible. When the en-
O"O3632'&]"E&F$6*2O&'$&"2&328-&_''$,"%&WW&%3"1*+38&
:3& ]"E& O$*2O& '$& I3& 83;3"'38.& b3& 3EF">38-& ;$11$]38&
by a group of Styrian aristocrats who caught and
,*1138& :*6.& USS& C3"%E& 1"'3%& 5:$6"E& *'3&:*E&I3O-
O*2O&;$%&63%FC-&%3@32O38&"&@*$132'&83"':&$;&':3&"%*Etocrat
Siegfried of Marenberg. 6
In the first half of the 14 th century the military
activity of the Freien of Sannek was mainly related to
the House of Habsburg. Ulrich II of Sannek had par-
'*F*>"'38&*2&':3&I"''13&;$%&':3&0+3F:&F%$]2&I3']332&
the House of Habsburg and the Carinthian Duke
Henry since the very beginning. Together with some
Carinthian aristocrats he probably attended the wed-
8*2O&$;&':3&0"%*2':*"2&4B,3&b32%C&"28&/2"-&"&E*E-
'3%&$;&0+3F:&7*2O&G"F1"@&WWW-&*2&H%"OB3-&Qc&P3I%B"%C&
1306. At the end of February of the same year Ulrich
was in Landshut in Bavaria with some other aristocrats
which confirms that Henry gave his wife Anna
a town Hall in Tyrol and some other properties. 7 The
sources do not clearly state how the Freien of Sannek
were involved in the war which broke out in autumn
QcSm-&;$11$]*2O&':3&313F'*$2&$;&b32%C&"E&0+3F:&7*2O.&
_21C&']$&83'"*1E&"%3&>%3E3%@38&]:*F:&F13"%1C&F$2;*%6&
that during the combats Ulrich was on the side of the
b$BE3&$;&b"IEIB%O.&W2&/>%*1&QcSY&:3&O"@3&P%383%*F,-&
4B,3&$;&/BE'%*"-&;$11$]*2O&':3&"8@*F3&$;&:*E&;%*328E-&
"E&:3&E'"'3E&*2&':3&'3E'"632'-&:*E&"11$8*"1&>%$>3%'C&
$;&':3&F"E'13E&n$@23,&"28&_E'%$@*F"-&"E&]311&"E&':3&
'$]3%E&â323,&"28&D*I32E'3*2-&"28&':32&O$'&*'&"11&I"F,&
;%$6&P%383%*F,&"E&"&;3B8"1&>%$>3%'C-&':BE&3E'"I1*E:*2O&
a vassal relationship with the House of Habsburg. 8
The other detail on the role of the Freien of Sannek
*2& ':*E& >3%*$8& *E& >%$@*838& IC& _''$,"%& $;& K3B1& ]:$&
in his rhymed Austrian Chronicle (Österreichische
`3*6F:%$2*,=& I%*3;1C& %3>$%'E& ':"'& *2& /BOBE'& QcSY-&
following the peace agreement between the warring
;"F'*$2E-& P%383%*F,& 8313O"'38& ':3& "86*2*E'%"'*$2& $;&
the shortly conquered castle and the town Slovenj
5 Kos 1996, p. 48.
6 Alphons Lhotsky (ed.), Thomas Ebendorfer, Cronica Austriae; Monumenta Germaniae
Historica, Scriptores rerum Germanicarum, N.S. XIII, Berlin 1967, pp.
149–150.
7 Kos 1996, pp. 73.
8 Kos 1996, pp. 80.

2$#2$4& E1B%:=*"& -3& M*$3"L& /-& 8*"& >80:1"& 0$&
smrti Henrika Koroškega od nemškega kralja
42-/"& ,"2"%H"& 4$B-*-& 2& 0$4:1-*:2& I:& 4:+:1$&
6$%$I/$&*:%&0%-&*:!&."$B-*-&l:3%-/$2$&=;:%/$&
-3&:4-3$&4:4-3#$&0$&*-%$18/-&2:#-&'$%-I/-=&'%$P$2&
)"%'"%:*$& )">1*"8H=(& 6:%& #:& B-1"& )"%'"%:*"&
0$%$;:3"&.&f"3:.$!&l:3%-/$!L&8-3$!&;:I/:'"&
/%"1#"& f"3:."L& 0%2:'"& /8:!B>%+"3"& 3"& ;:-
I/:!&0%:8*$1>L&/-&#:&0%"2&*"/$&-!:1&82$#:&3";%*:&
.&4:4-I;-3$&0$&l:3%-/>&6$%$I/:!L&#:&B-1&2$#"-
I/-&80$0"4&3:-.B:+:3(&@&3#:!&8:&#:&3"&8*%"3-&
l"B8B>%+"3$2& 80:*& 0$#"2-1& *>4-& N%-4:%-/& h$2neški.
4. januarja 1336 sta avstrijska vojvoda
E1B%:=*&-3&M*$3&."&N%-4:%-/"&-.4"1"&."4$1+3-H$L&
8&/"*:%$&8*"&!>&0$01";"1"&82$#:&4$*:4"3#:&4$1-
'$2:(&9"&8$4:1$2"3#:&3"&0$=$4>&0%$*-&^:=$!&
leto pred tem (832&3%&B2E&83+&@$%83%2&#"%3E&O32&
Peheim getan hat?&8*"&!>&B-1"&4$1+3"&VkT&!"%/&
8%:B%"& '%"I/:& *:+:L& ."& 81>+B$& 0%-& 2"%$2"3#>&
$'%8/:&!:#:L&/#:%&#:&h$23:I/-&$;-*3$&0%:428:!&
bdel nad morebitnim posredovanjem ogrskega
/%"1#"&6"%1"&C$B:%*"L&0"&8*"&!>&3"!:3-1"&STT&
!"%/&8%:B%"(&6&28$*-&8*"&0%-I*:1"&I:&WTT&!"%/&
$'1:#8/-&0P:3-'$2L&/-&#-=&#:&N%-4:%-/&."3#>&."1$-
+-1&0%-&f"3:.>&-.&4:3:/L&
61">8:38*:-3&-3&C"4:;:( 11
@&1:*-=L&/-&8$&81:4-1"L&8:&#:&-3*:3.-23$8*&8$-
4:1$2"3#"& h$23:I/-=& $.-%$!"& 0$& 1:*>& Re\R&
H:1#8/-=&'%$P$2&3"&%".1-;3-=&2$#"I/-=&0$=$4-=&
0$2:;"1"L&.1"8*-&.&c1%-/$!&X(&`:1#8/-!&0"&8:&#:&
%".I-%-1&*>4-&3"B$%&3#-=$2-=&3"%$;3-/$2(&9&$'%-
8/-!-& 21"4"%#-& 8$& 2:%#:*3$& 8$4:1$2"1-& +:& 28"#&
1:*"&Re\RL&;:&+:&3:&0%:#(&94-&8:&3"!%:;L&4"&#:&
\TT&'$14-3"%#:2L&/-&#-=&#:&C>41:-3>&6"H:3I*"#3-
8/:!>&4"1&/$!$%3-/&$'%8/:'"&/%"1#"L&-.2-%"1$&
-.&:3:'"&$4&*"/-=&2$#"I/-=&8$4:1$2"3#(&C>41:-3&
#:&$!:3#:3-=&\TT&'$14-3"%#:2&0%:4"1&l"38>&-.&
6>3I0:%/"L&*"&0"&8:&#:&4:H:!B%"&Re\R&$B2:."1L&
4"&B$&4:3"%&-.%$;-1&N%-4:%-/>&`:1#8/:!>( RV
Najpomembnejši najemnik med celjskimi
'%$P-& #:& B-1& 3:42$!3$& N%-4:%-/$2& 8-3& c1%-/& X(&
9"3#&3"#:!3-I*2$&3-&B-1$&1:&0%-1$+3$8*&."&4$4"-
*:3&."81>+:/L&"!0"/&+:&8/$%"#&3";-3&+-21#:3#"(&
K#:'$2$& 2$#"I/$& /"%-:%$& #:& 3"#B$1#& 01"8*-;3$&
$0-8"1& A:*:%& D>H=:3G-%*L& "2*$%& %".1-;3-=& 0:snitev
iz druge polovice 14. stoletja. 13 Kmalu
0$& c1%-/$2-& 8!%*-& #:& D>H=:3G-%*& 80:83-1& VVW&
11 Kos 1996, str. 160.
12" ;2V2"k)28/?/=9"Gradivo za zgodovino Slovencev 1246–1500, Centralna kartoteka
Zgodovinskega inštituta Milka Kosa ZRC SAZU (tipkopis), 1431 december 5., Celje.
13 O Suchenwirtu prim. Verfasserlexikon, IX, str. 481–488.
Gradec to Ulrich. V
W2&':3&;$11$]*2O&;3]&83F"83E&':3&P%3*32&$;&N"223,-&
2$]& "E& ':3*%& @"EE"1E-& F1$E31C& F$$>3%"'38& ]*':& ':3&
House of Habsburg which is confirmed by documentary
material. Thus in the year 1330 or 1331
Friderick of the Sannek participated in battles
against Bavaria for which he earned 40 marks worth
of silver in the year 1331. 10 The Freien of Sannek participated
also in engagements between the House of
Habsburg and the House of Luxemburg which broke
out in 1335. The reason for the conflict was mainly
a diplomatic maneuver of Austrian Dukes Albrecht
"28&_''$&]:$-&;$11$]*2O&':3&83"':&$;&/BE'%*"2&4B,3&
b32%C-&6"2"O38&'$&$I'"*2&;%$6&K3%6"2&7*2O&D$B*E&
$;& )"@"%*"& ':3& F$B2'%C& 0"%*2':*"-& 13"@*2O& ]*':$B'&
3@3%C':*2O& b32%CfE& 8"BO:'3%& !"%O"%3'& !"B1'"EF:-&
':3&$21C&5C%$1&:3*%&$;&':3&0$B2'E&$;&K$%*+*".&
N*2F3&!"%O"%3'"&]"E&6"%%*38&'$&e$:2&b32%C-&':3&
E$2&$;&0+3F:&7*2O&e$:2-&':3&;*%E'&636I3%&$;&':3&b$BE3&
$;&DBa36I$B%O&$2&':3&0+3F:&':%$23-&]:$&"1E$&:"8&
certain plans with the heritage left by Carinthian
4B,3&b32%C-&':3&32O"O3632'&]"E&*23@*'"I13.&/O"*2&
in attendance was Friederick of the Sannek on the
E*83&$;&':3&b$BE3&$;&b"IEIB%O.&_2&[&e"2B"%C&QccR&
/BE'%*"2&4B,3E&/1I%3F:'&"28&_''$&*EEB38&"&83I32'B%3&
for Frederick with which they paid to him all their
debts. For his participation in the march against the
0+3F:E&"&C3"%&I3;$%3&9832&3%&B2E&83+&@$%83%2&#"%3E&
O32& H3:3*6& O3'"2& :"'=& ':3C& $]38& :*6& UmS& 6"%,E&
]$%':&$;&E*1@3%-&"28&;$%&:*E&>"%'*F*>"'*$2&*2&OB"%8-
*2O&':3&bB2O"%*"2&I$%83%-&]"*'*2O&;$%&':3&>$'32'*"1&
*2'3%@32'*$2&$;&bB2O"%*"2&7*2O&0:"%13E&`$I3%'-&':3C&
gave him 600 marks worth of silver. He was also
O*@32&VSS&6"%,E&]$%':&$;&/dB*13*"&>;322*OE-&]:*F:&
P%383%*F,&>"*8&'$&e$:2&$;&D*36I3%O-&"28&>138O38&'$&
:*6&':3&F"E'13E&D"J,$-&P%3B8323,-&71"BE32E'3*2&"28&
`"83A3&;$%&':3&]:$13&"6$B2'. 11
W2& ':3& ;$11$]*2O& C3"%E& ':3& P%3*32& $;& N"223,-& $%&
':3&0$B2'E&$;&0*11*&";'3%&':3&C3"%&Qc[Q-&*2F%3"E38&':3&
intensity of their participation in various military
marches. Especially with Ulrich I of Cilli the circle
of their “contractors” expanded. They probably co-
$>3%"'38&]*':&bB2O"%*"2&%B13%E&"'&13"E'&*2&Qc[Q-&*;&
not before. It seems that 400 florins given to Rudlein
7"'+32E'3*2& IC& ':3& 0:"6I3%1"*2& $;& ':3& bB2O"%*"2&
7*2O-&%3EB1'38&;%$6&$23&$;&EBF:&6*1*'"%C&>"%'*F*>"-
'*$2E.&`B813*2&O"@3&[SS&;1$%*2E&'$&b"2E&$;&7B2J>3%,&
who in 1341 committed himself to give this money to
9 Joseph Seemüller (ed.), Ottokars Österreichische Reimchronik; Monumenta Germaniae
Historica, Deutsche Chroniken, V/2, München 1980 (reproduction), verses
95.642–95.654.
10 Kos 1996, p. 131.
11 Kos 1996, p. 160.
M I L I T A R Y H I S T O R Y ! 111

i%"4&h$23:/&7i(&)(&@-8H=:%L&5$0$'%"0=-"&4>H"*>8&D*-%-":L&RSZR? 0"E'13&n$@23,&9K.&!.&G*EF:3%-&5$>$O%">:*"&8BF"'BE&N'*%*"3-&QRYQ=
2:%.$2&4$1'$&=:%"14-;3$&$B#$/$2"13$&0:8:!L&2&
/"*:%-&#:&0$&.'1:4>&"3*-;3-=&laudatio funebris
$0-8"1& 0$/$#3-/$2"&81"23"&4:#"3#"L&#-=&0$2:1--
;:2"1&-3&=2"1-1L&$B&/$3H>&0:83-*2:&0"&_&/"%&#:&
D>H=:3G-%*$2"&0$8:B3$8*&_&4$4"1&I:&$0-8&c1%-kovega
grba. 14 &A:83-*:2&#:&8:2:4"&0%-8*%"38/"L&
saj avtor pri pisanju sledi latinskemu reku de
mortuis nil nisi bene. Ulrik je bil vedno neustrašni
junak – 83O32- njegove vrline so bile vsem
4$B%$&.3"3:&-3&8$&#-=&28-&80$I*$2"1-(&61#>B&28:binskemu
pretiravanju pa je pesnitev osnovni
pregled Ulrikove pestre vojaške kariere.
A$&D>H=:3G-%*>&3"#&B-&c1%-/&3"&82$#&0%2-&0$-
=$4&7sein erst geverte) odšel z ogrskim kraljem
42-/$!& 3"& 0$!$;& 4"1!"*-38/:!>& !:8*>&
Zadar (Saders). 15 &):I;"3-&8$&3"!%:;&1:*"&Re\Y&
0%$8-1-& 42-/"L& 3"#& #-=& $82$B$4-& -.0$4& B:3:-
I/:&3"4$B1"8*-L&,:3:*/:&0"&8$&3#-=$2$&0%$I3#$&
razumele kot izdajo in so se nanjo odzvale z
obleganjem mesta. Junija 1346 je Ludvik pri-
I:1&3"&0$!$;&$B1:'"3:!>&!:8*>&.&3"#:!3-/-L&
14" U$2,4"78,0,44/89"Peter Suchenwirt's Werke aus dem vierzehnten Jahrhunderte; Ein
Beytrag zur Zeit- und Sittengeschichte, Wien 1827 (ponatis 1961), Lied XVI: Von
graff Ulreichen von Tzili, str. 51.
15" 78,0,44/8"@SQ:9"Z,/+"s`v9"&/8W"QTOK:.
112 ! V O J A Š K A Z G O D O V I N A
Frederick of Cilli. QU
The most important mercenary among the Counts
of Cilli was definitely Frederick’s son Ulrich I. For him
mercenarism was not only an opportunity to earn
3a'%"&6$23C-&IB'&"16$E'&"&]"C&$;&1*;3.&b*E&6*1*'"%C&
F"%33%& ]"E& I3E'& 83EF%*I38& IC& H3'3%& NBF:32]*%'-& ':3&
author of various poems from the second half of the
14 th century. 13 Soon after Ulrich’s death Suchenwirt
]%$'3& "& :3%"18*F& O%*3@*2O& >$36& ]*':& UUV& @3%E3E& *2&
]:*F:&:3-&;$11$]*2O&':3&3a"6>13&$;&':3&"2F*32'&1"B-
8"'*$& ;B23I%*E-& 83EF%*I38-& O1$%*;*38& "28& >%"*E38& :*E&
notorious deeds. At the end of the poem he also de-
EF%*I38&k1%*F:fE&F$"'&$;&"%6E- 14 which was typical of
him. The poem is certainly not objective since the
author followed the Latin saying de mortuis nil nisi
I323.&k1%*F:&]"E&"1]"CE&"&;3"%13EE&:3%$&h&83O32-&:*E&
qualities were well known and respected by everybody.
Despite all its exaggerations the poem provides
a basic review of Ulrich’s rich military career.
According to Suchenwirt Ulrich went on his first
6"%F:& 9E3*2& 3%E'& O3@3%'3=& ]*':& bB2O"%*"2& 7*2O&
12" ;2V2"k)28/?/=9"Gradivo za zgodovino Slovencev 1246–1500, Centralna kartoteka
Zgodovinskega inštituta Milka Kosa ZRC SAZU (typescript), 1431 December 5.,
Celje.
13 On Suchenwirt cf. Verfasserlexikon, IX, pp. 481–488.
14" U$2,4"78,0,44/89"Peter Suchenwirt's Werke aus dem vierzehnten Jahrhunderte; Ein
Beytrag zur Zeit- und Sittengeschichte, Wien 1827 (reproduction 1961), Lied XVI:
Von graff Ulreichen von Tzili, p. 51.

vendar je bil pri tem neuspešen. Leto pozneje
je Ulrik sodeloval z brandenburškim mejnim
'%$P$!& 42-/$!L& 8-3$!& 3:!I/:'"& /%"1#"&
42-/"& ,"2"%H"& -3& !$+:!& )"%'"%:*:& )">1-
*"8H=L&2&80$0"4-=&.&/8:!B>%+"3-&."%"4-&5-rolske.
16 &M;-*3$&8:&#:&-./"."1L&8"#&'"&#:&42-/&
,%"34:3B>%I/-&0$2"B-1&3"&8:2:%L&/#:%&8$&!>&2&
Brandenburgu v obdobju bivanja na Tirolskem
stvari ušle z vajeti. Jeseni 1348 je sodeloval
0%-& 3:>80:I3:!& $B1:'"3#>& D*%">8B:%'"& 2.=$dno
od Berlina. Uspešnejši je bil pri obleganju
mesta Newenstat. D>H=:3G-%*&8:&#:&81-/$2-*$&-.-
%".-1L&4"&8$&c1%-/$2-&3"80%$*3-/-&0$.3"1-&8"!$&
dve besedi: »"F:&B28&"]3ä&8"+&]"+&*%&F:%3C}. 17
,-2"3#:&3"&8:2:%>&#:&c1%-/&$;-*3$&-./$%-8*-1&
*>4-& ."& m-.1:*n& 2& A%>8-#$& -3& /%-+"%8/-& 0$=$4&
proti Litvi. 18 & A$=$4-& 3"& 8/%"#3-& 8:2:%$2.=$4&
*:4"3#:'"&/%I;"38*2"&8$&B-1-&2&R\(&8*$1:*#>&3:-
/"#&0$28:!&$B-;"#3:'"L&8"#&#:&0$&0"4H>&E//$3"&
RVWR&B$#&0%$*-&0$'"38/-!&'-B"!$(& c1%-/& B-& 8:& /%"1#:2-& 8/>0-3-& 3"#1"+:&
0%-4%>+-1&2&@-4!>L&/"!$%&#:&/%"1#&6"%1&0%-80:1&
14. oktobra 1354. Ve Do kdaj je Ulrik vztrajal s
80%:!8*2$!L&3-&.3"3$(&6%$3"3#:&#:&B-1$&2&C-!>&
Y(&"0%-1"&R\YYL V\ &2&.";:*/>&#>1-#"&-8*:'"&1:*"&0"&
#:&B-1&6"%1&+:&2&E>'8B>%'>&3"&,"2"%8/:!( VY
c1%-/& #:& 3"*$& 0$& D>H=:3G-%*$2:!& 0%-0$2:-
4$2"3#>&$4I:1&2&E28*%-#$L&8:&80:*&0%-4%>+-1&$'%-
8/:!>& /%"1#>& 42-/>L& 8$4:1$2"1& 0%-& $B1:'"-
16" 78,0,44/8"@SQ:9"Z,/+"s`v9"&/8W"KSOT!.
17" 78,0,44/8"@SQ:9"Z,/+"s`v9"&/8W"TBO:T.
18" 78,0,44/8"@SQ:9"Z,/+"s`v9"&/8W":!OAK.
19" C/8'/8" 7%8%&,=,',9" H,/" 78/*44/'J%>8)/'" +/4" /*82?\,4=>/'" U+/$49" &f" Historische
Zeitschrift, 232 (1981), str. 26.
20" 78,0,44/8"@SQ:9"Z,/+"s`v9"&/8W"SBOSAf"mDer edel zu dem seelben mal/enphie den
ritters segen, / den trueg der stoltze degen / mit ern alle seine tag.«
21" 78,0,44/8"@SQ:9"Z,/+"s`v9"&/8W"ATO@RR.
22" 78,0,44/8"@SQ:9"Z,/+"s`v9"&/8W"@R@O@@R.
23 Alfons Huber, Die Regesten des Kaiserreichs unter Kaiser Karl IV. 1346–1378;
Regesta imperii, VIII, Insbruck 1877 (ponatis 1934).
24 Huber 1877, listina št. 2014a.
25 Huber 1877, listina št. 2167.
Louis to help the Dalmatian town Zadar (Saders). 15
W2& Qc[X& ':3& F*'*+32E& "E,38& D$B*E& '$& 1*I3%"'3& ':36&
;%$6& G323'*"2& %B13.& b$]3@3%-& ':3& G323'*"2E& F$2sidered
this request to be treason and started to besiege
the town. In June 1346 Louis and mercenaries
F"63&'$&':3&I3E*3O38&'$]2&'$&:31>&*'-&IB'&':3C&]3%3&
not successful. In the following year Ulrich participated
in engagements for Tyrol against the House
of Luxembourg. In these battles he cooperated with
D$B*E-&':3&!"%O%"@3&0$B2'&$;&)%"832IB%O-&':3&E$2&$;&
K3%6"2&7*2O&D$B*E&$;&)"@"%*"&"28&':3&:BEI"28&$;&
Margaret Maultasch. 16 He obviously performed very
well in these battles since Louis of Bradenburg invited
him to the north where in Bradenburg during his
stay in Tyrol things got out of control. In the autumn
of 1348 he participated in an unsuccessful besiege of
N'%"BEI3%O-&3"E'&$;&)3%1*2.&b3&]"E&6$%3&EBFF3EE;B1&*2&
besieging the town Newenstat. Suchenwirt said that
k%1*FfE&$>>$232'&,23]&$21C&']$&]$%8EL&l"F:&B28&"]3ä&
8"+&]"+&*%&F:%3Cf. 17
Ulrich took advantage of his stay in the north
"1E$& ;$%& "& l'%*>f& '$& H%BEE*"& "28& "& F%BE"83& "O"*2E'&
Lithuania. 18 &0%BE"83E&'$&':3&;"%&2$%':Z3"E'-&$;&':32&
0:%*E'*"2*'C-&]3%3&*2&':3&Q[ th century completely nor-
6"1-& E*2F3& ;$11$]*2O& ':3& ;"11& $;& /,,$2& *2& QUVQ& ':3&
fight against the Pagan Lithuanians became an in-
E'*'B'*$2&$;&2$I*1*'C&'$&':3&>$*2'&':"'-&"'&13"E'&*2&':3&
E3F$28&:"1;&$;&':"'&F32'B%C-&*'&]"E&6$%3&1*,31C&;$%&"2&
"%*E'$F%"'&'$&I3&*2&H%BEE*"&"'&13"E'&$2F3-&':"2&2$'. QV
P$%&k1%*F:&':3&6"%F:&'$&D*':B"2*"-&]:*F:&"FF$%8*2O&
'$&NBF:32]*%'&1"E'38&"I$B'&'32&8"CE-&]"E&2$'&"E&*6portant
as the fact that during this campaign he was
knighted. US
After his return he participated in the successful
siegl of the town Newnhaus UQ with one of the Walsee
"28& ':32& "FF$6>"2*38& K3%6"2& 7*2O& 0:"%13E& WG& '$&
the Emperor’s Coronation in Rome. UU &_':3%&F*%FB6-
E'"2F3E&$;&k1%*F:fE&>"%'*F*>"'*$2&*2&':3&7*2OfE&3EF$%'&
are not known and can only be speculated on. The
easiest for Ulrich would have been to join the king’s
3EF$%'& *2& k8*23& ]:3%3& 7*2O& 0:"%13E& "%%*@38& $2& Q[&
_F'$I3%& QcX[. Uc It is not known until when Ulrich
remained in the escort. The coronation took place in
15" 78,0,44/8"@SQ:9"Z,/+"s`v9"&/84/4"QTOK:.
16" 78,0,44/8"@SQ:9"Z,/+"s`v9"&/84/4"KSOT!.
17" 78,0,44/8"@SQ:9"Z,/+"s`v9"&/84/4"TBO:T.
18" 78,0,44/8"@SQ:9"Z,/+"s`v9"&/84/4":!OAK.
19" C/8'/8"7%8%&,=,',9"H,/"78/*44/'J%>8)/'"+/4"/*82?\,4=>/'"U+/$49",'f"Historische
Zeitschrift, 232 (1981), p. 26.
20" 78,0,44/8"@SQ:9"Z,/+"s`v9"&/84/4"SBOSAf"mDer edel zu dem seelben mal/enphie
den ritters segen, / den trueg der stoltze degen / mit ern alle seine tag.«
21" 78,0,44/8"@SQ:9"Z,/+"s`v9"&/84/4"ATO@RR.
22" 78,0,44/8"@SQ:9"Z,/+"s`v9"&/8W"@R@O@@R.
23 Alfons Huber, Die Regesten des Kaiserreichs unter Kaiser Karl IV. 1346–1378;
Regesta imperii, VIII, Insbruck 1877 (Reproduction 1934).
M I L I T A R Y H I S T O R Y ! 113

nju Trevisa (Terveys) ter odpotoval v Srbijo. VS
O"*>!"&0$=$4"&0%$*-&D%B-#-&-.&0:83-*2:&3-&!$;&
%".B%"*-L& .& 2:1-/$& 2:%#:*3$8*#$& 0"& '"& 1"=/$&
>!:8*-!$&2&$B4$B#:&3$*%"3#-=&2%:3#&0$&8!%*-&
H"%#"&O>I"3"&D-13:'"&ReYYL&/$&8$&8:&$B&I-B/:!&
O>I"3$2:!& 3"81:43-/>& c%$I>& 2& 4%+"2-& 0$#"-
2-1:&!$;3:&H:3*%-P>'"13:&*:+3#:L&2&/"*:%-=&8$&
-8/"1-& 82$#$& 0%-1$+3$8*& I*:2-13-& 1$/"13-& 8%B8/-&
P:24"1H-(&
Ulrik I. Celjski je z Ludvikom po kratki pre-
/-3-*2-& 8$4:1$2"1& I:& 8%:4-& I:8*4:8:*-=& 1:*& R\(&
8*$1:*#"(& 5"/%"*& 8:& #:& 0$& D>H=:3G-%*$2-=& B:-
8:4"=& 0$4& /%"1#:2-!& 2$48*2$!& >4:1:+-1& 42:=&
2$#"I/-=& 0$=$4$2& 3"& B"1/"38/-& 0$1$*$/(& A%2-&
0$=$4L& 0$1:*-& ReSeL& #:& B-1& 3"0:%#:3& 0%$*-& B$sanskemu
banu Tvrtku. Vk Ta je kazal vse ve-
;#:&*:+3#:&0$&8"!$8*$#3$8*-&-3&3:$42-83$8*-&$4&
$'%8/:& /%$3:L& ;:8"%& 42-/& 3-& 8!:1& 4$2$1-*-(&
O%>'-& 0$=$4L& 1:*"& ReSYL& 0"& #:& B-1& >8!:%#:3&
proti Bolgariji. VZ Ogrska vojska je – spet po Su-
H=:3G-%*>&_&0%-I1"&28:&4$&B$1'"%8/:&0%:8*$13-ce
Vidin (Püdeyn?(&5$&3"#&B-&B-1&0$&D>H=:3G-%-
*>&*>4-&."43#-&c1%-/$2&2$#"I/-&0$=$4(&
Pomembno vlogo so Celjski odigrali v sporu
!:4& $'1:#8/-!& 0"*%-"%="*$!& -3& l"B8B>%+"3-L&
/-&#:&-.B%>=3-1&8%:4-&R\(&8*$1:*#"(&l"B8B>%+"3-&
8$& 3"!%:;& 0$& 0$1"8*-*2-& 6$%$I/:& -3& 6%"3#8/:&
ReeY&.";:1-&3";%*3$&I-%-*-&82$#$&0$8:8*&3"&6%"-
8>&-3&2&A%-!$%#>L&/"%&#:&I1$&3"&%";>3&$'1:#8/:&
posesti. Celjski so bili v sporu sprva vsaj za-
4%+"3-L&;:&3:&H:1$&B$1#&3"/1$3#:3-&$'1:#8/:!>&
0"*%-"%=>(&M'1:#&#-=&#:&28:&4$&/$3H"&P:B%>"%#"&
ReST&2:;/%"*&0%$8-1&."&0$8%:4$2"3#:&0%-&C>4$1-
P>& l"B8B>%I/:!& "1-& #-!& #:& 0$I-1#"1& 20%"I"3#"L&
0$2:."3"&.&C>4$1P$2-!-&3";%*-( VW Marca istega
1:*"&#:&$'1:#8/-&0"*%-"%=&42-/&H:1$&0$$B1"8*-1&
c1%-/"&-3&l:%!"3"&`:1#8/"L&4"&0%-4$B-*"&3"."#&
0$8:8*-L&$4*>#:3:&$'1:#8/-&H:%/2-( 30 &h"1&1-8*-3"&
3:&0$2:L&/"*:%:&8$&B-1:&*:&0$8:8*-&-3&/4$&#-=&#:&
$4*>#-1(&D*"1-I;:&`:1#8/-=&8:&#:&80%:!:3-1$&0$1:*-&
ReSVL&/$&#:&C>4$1P&-!:3$2"1&c1%-/"&X(&`:1#8/:-
'"&."&82$#:'"&4:+:13:'"&'1"2"%#"&3"&6%"3#8/:!&
-3&!>&."'$*$2-1L&4"&!>&B$&0$2%3-1&28$&I/$4$L&
/-&#$&B$&>*%0:1&3"&*:!&0$1$+"#>( 31 Rezultati so
bili vidni takoj. Ulrik je prej kot v enem mese-
H>&."8:4:1&*%43#"2$&61>+:&0%-&)$+"H>&-3&#$&4$&
26" 78,0,44/8"@SQ:9"Z,/+"s`v9"&/8W"@@@O@QA.
27" 78,0,44/8"@SQ:9"Z,/+"s`v9"&/8W"@KRO@K:.
28" 78,0,44/8"@SQ:9"Z,/+"s`v9"&/8W"@KSO@!A.
29 Joseph Zahn, Austro-Friulana; Sammlung von Actenstücken zur Geschichte des
Conflictes Herzog Rudolfs IV. von Österreich mit dem Patriarchate von Aquileja
1358–1365; Fontes rerum Austriacarum, II/40, Wien 1877, listina št. 87 ali 89.
30" k)28/?/="O"#8%+,&29"@KBR"0%8/="QK.9"t/+%+.
31 Otorepec – Gradivo, 1362 avgust 26., Dunaj.
114 ! V O J A Š K A Z G O D O V I N A
`$63&$2&X&/>%*1&QcXX- U[ &:$]3@3%-&"'&':3&I3O*22*2O&$;&
July of the same year Ulrich was already in Augsburg
in Bavaria. UX
/FF$%8*2O&'$&NBF:32]*%'-&k1%*F:&]32'&'$&/BE'%*"-&
#$*238&bB2O"%*"2&7*2O&D$B*E&$23&6$%3&'*63-&>"%'*F*pated
in besieging of Treviso (Terveys) and went to
Serbia with him. UR It is not clear from the poem when
':3&6"%F:&'$]"%8E&N3%I*"&'$$,&>1"F3-&IB'&6$E'&>%$Iably
it occurred during the internal unrest following
the death of Dušan the Mighty in 1355. During the
%B13&$;&:*E&]3",&EBFF3EE$%&k%$J-&':3&F$B2'%C&]"E&;"F38&
with strong centrifugal tendencies through which
many local Serbian feudal lords tried to prosper.
/;'3%& "& E:$%'& EBE>32E*$2& $;& F$2'"F'E& ]*':& D$B*E-&
Ulrich I of Cilli cooperated with him again in the
6*8ZQcRSE.&/FF$%8*2O&'$&NBF:32]*%'-&*2&':"'&>3%*$8&
he participated in two campaigns on the Balkans
>32*2EB1"-& 138& IC& ':3& ,*2O.& 5:3& ;*%E'& F"6>"*O2E& *2&
the summer of 1363 was oriented against Bosnian
Ban Tvrtko Um who wanted to gain independence from
':3&bB2O"%*"2&F%$]2-&:$]3@3%-&D$B*E&F$B18&2$'&13'&
that happen. The second campaigns followed in 1365
and was aimed against Bulgaria. UY According to
NBF:32]*%'-&':3&bB2O"%*"2&"%6C&F"63&"11&':3&]"C&
to the Bulgarian capital Vidin (Püdeyn). According
to Suchenwirt this was also Ulrich’s last military
campaigns.
The Counts of Cilli played an important role in
the conflict between the Patriarchate of Aquileia
and the House of Habsburg which broke out in the
middle of the 14 th century. After having appropri-
"'38&0"%*2':*"&"28&0"%2*$1"&*2&QccX-&':3&b$BE3&$;&
Habsburg started to deliberately expand its prop-
3%'C& *2& ':3& 7"%E'& "28& N1$@32*"2& D*''$%"1-& '$& ':3&
detriment of Aquileia property. In this conflict the
0$B2'E&$;&0*11*&]3%3&"'&;*%E'&%3E3%@38-&*;&2$'&3@32&*2&
favour of the Patriarchate of Aquileia. By the end of
February 1360 they had received by the Patriarch
of Aquilea several requests to intercede with Rudolf
$;& b"IEIB%O-& "E& ]311& "E& @"%*$BE& dB3E'*$2E-& %31"'38&
to Rudolf’s plans. UV In March of the same year the
/dB*13"&H"'%*"%F:&D$B*E&3@32&"B':$%*+38&k1%*F:&"28&
b3%6"22&$;&0*11*&'$&%3F$@3%&':3&>%$>3%'*3E-&"1*32"'ed
from the Aquileian Church. 30 Unfortunately the
document does not state which these properties were
and who alienated them. The Counts of Cilli’s view
24 Huber 1877, Docunent No. 2014a.
25 Huber 1877, Document No. 2167.
26" 78,0,44/8"@SQ:9"Z,/+"s`v9"&/84/4"@@@O@QA.
27" 78,0,44/8"@SQ:9"Z,/+"s`v9"&/84/4"@KRO@K:.
28" 78,0,44/8"@SQ:9"Z,/+"s`v9"&/84/4"@KSO@!A.
29 Joseph Zahn, Austro-Friulana; Sammlung von Actenstücken zur Geschichte des
Conflictes Herzog Rudolfs IV. von Österreich mit dem Patriarchate von Aquileja
1358–1365; Fontes rerum Austriacarum, II/40, Wien 1877, Document No. 87 or 89.
30 Otorepec – Material, 1360 March 23, Cividale dei Friuli.

%".8$4B:&!"4+"%8/:'"&/%"1#"&42-/"&$&3#:3-&
0%-0"43$8*-&-.%$;-1&2&>0%"2$&$0"*>&8"!$8*"3"&
2&)$+"H>( eV Marca 1363 je avstrijski vojvoda
C>4$1P& 0$$B1"8*-1& c1%-/"L& 4"& 8:& 2& 3#:'$2:!&
-!:3>& 0$'"#"& -3& 4$'$2"%#"& $& 28:=& !:48:B$#-
3-=&80$%-=&8&0$*:8*"*$!L&8$43-/-L&82:*$!&-3&/$-
!>3$&!:8*"&5%8*(&C>4$1P&#:&c1%-/>&.">0"1&4$&*:&
!:%:L&4"&8:&#:&$B2:."1&80$I*$2"*-&-3&80%:#:*-&28:&
4$'$2$%:L&/-&B-&#-=&*"&4$8:':1&2&3#:'$2:!&-!:nu.
33 & A-8!$& $'1:#8/:'"& 0"*%-"%="& 42-/"L& /-&
'"&#:&"2'>8*"&*:'"&1:*"&0$81"1&!:8*>&i:!$3"L&
4"#:&81>*-*-L&4"&8:&#:&c1%-/&2&C>4$1P$2:!&-!:3>&
0$'"#"1& *>4-& 8& 8"!-!& 0"*%-"%=$!( 34 Posledice
4$'$2$%"& H:1#8/-=& '%$P$2& #:& ;>*-1"& 0%:428:!&
3#-=$2"&B1"'"#3"(&M/*$B%"&ReSe&#:&C>4$1P&-.4"1&
1-8*-3$L&8&/"*:%$&#:&c1%-/>&-3&l:%!"3>&."&4$1-
+3-=& VTTT& '$14-3"%#:2L& /-& 8*"& 8-& #-=& 0%-81>+-1"&
.& 2$#"I/$& 81>+B$& 2& A$"4-+#>L& ."8*"2-1& @$#3-/L&
D"H=8:3G"%*&-3&*%'&h"1:H( 35 &h:&;:.&42"&!:8:H"&
#-!"&#:&C>4$1P&."&4$1+3-=&YTTT&'$14-3"%#:2L&$4&
/"*:%-=& 8*"& !>& #-=& ."& 0$*%:B:& 3#:'$2-=& 4:+:1&
+:&0$8$4-1"&e\TTL&0%:$8*"1-=&RSTT&'$14-3"%#:2&
0"& #-!"& #:& B-1& 4$1+"3& ."& 2$#"I/$& 81>+B$& 0%$*-&
,"2"%H:!L&."8*"2-1&I:&!:8*$&6"!3-/&3"&6%"3#-
8/:!&8&8$4-I;:!L&!-*3-H$&-3&28:!-&4$=$4/-&4$&
4$/$3;3:'"& 2%";-1"& 4$1'"( 36 Podobno inten-
.-23$&8$&8$4:1$2"1-&*>4-&3"81:43#:&1:*$(&E0%-1"&
ReS\&8:&#:&C>4$1P&80:*&80$0"4"1&.&,"2"%8/$(&9"&
0$=$4L&/-&3"#&B-&*%"#"1&$4&f>%-#:2:'"&4$&82(&)"%-
*-3"& *-8*:'"& 1:*"L& #:& B-1& C>4$1P& c1%-/>& -3& l:%-
!"3>&4$1+"3&VRYT&'$14-3"%#:2L&."&/"%&#-!"&#:&
23$2-;&."8*"2-1&'%"4$2"&@$#3-/&-3&D"H=8:3G"%*&
*:%&*%'&h"1:H(&@&."!:3$&8*"&8:&B%"*"&$B2:."1"L&
4"&8:&B$8*"&0$=$4"&>4:1:+-1"&8&RTT&*:+/$&$B$-
%$+:3-!-&/$3#:3-/-&*:%&0%"2&*$1-/$&8*%:1H-( 37
l:%!"3L&."&/"*:%:'"&8:&0$&2-%-=&.4-L&4"&#:&
bil vojaško nekoliko manj dejaven kot njegov
B%"*&c1%-/L&#:&3:/"#&!:8:H:2&0%:4&B%"*$2$&8!%tjo
s 50 dobrimi najemniki spremljal avstrij-
8/:'"&2$#2$4$&E1B%:=*"&2&C-!L&."&/"%&#:&$4&3#:ga
dobil skupno 4500 goldinarjev. Za to vsoto
8*"&!>&2$#2$4-&E1B%:=*&-3&"%*E:& $;& ':3&
town Trieste. Rudolf trusted Ulrich to the extent that
he was committed to accept all agreements reached
by Ulrich of Cilli on his behalf. 33 The letter written
IC& ':3& /dB*13*"2& H"'%*"%F:& D$B*E-& E32'& '$& ':3& '$]2&
K36$2"& *2& /BOBE'& $;& ':"'& C3"%-& *28*F"'3E& ':"'-& $2&
I3:"1;& $;& `B8$1;-& k1%*F:& 23O$'*"'38& "1E$& ]*':& ':3&
Patriarch. 34 The consequences of the Counts of Cilli
32O"O3632'&]3%3&6"*21C&;*2"2F*"1.&W2&_F'$I3%&QcRc&
Rudolf issued a document with which he promised
the castles Vojnik and Sachsenwart and the town
n"13F& '$& k1%*F:& "28& b3%6"22-& E*2F3& :3& $]38& ':36&
USSS& ;1$%*2E& ;$%& ':3*%& 6*1*'"%C& "F'*$2& *2& ':3& "%3"&
of the river Adige. 35 & _21C& ']$& 6$2':E& 1"'3%& `B8$1;&
owed to Ulrich and Hermann 5000 florins; he borrowed
3400 florins from them for the needs of his
F$B2'%*3E-&]:*13&':3C&3"%238&QRSS&;1$%*2E&]*':&':3*%&
participation in military engagements against the
Bavarians. For this reason Rudolf promised them the
'$]2&7"62*,&*2&0"%2*$1"-&*2F1B8*2O&':3&F$B%'-&'$$1&
I$':-& "E& ]311& "E& "11& *2F$63E& B2'*1& ':3& ;*2"1& %3>"Cment
of the debt. 36 The following year their cooperation
was just as intensive. In April 1364 Rudolf was
again involved in engagements with Bavaria. For
':3&F"6>"*O2-&]:*F:&]"E&EB>>$E38&'$&1"E'&;%$6&N'.&
K3$%O3fE&8"C&'$&N'.&!"%'*2fE&8"C&$;&':"'&C3"%-&`B8$1;&
$]38& k1%*F:& "28& b3%6"22& UQXS& ;1$%*2E.& P$%& ':*E&
amount of money he once again promised the cas-
'13E&G$#2*,&"28&N"F:E32]"%'&"28&':3&'$]2&n"13F.&W2&
return the brothers undertook to participate on the
campaign with 100 heavily armed cavalrymen and
100 archers 37 .
/&;3]&6$2':E&I3;$%3&:*E&I%$':3%fE&83"':&b3%6"22-&
who according to sources was less active in the
31 Otorepec – Gradivo, 1362 August 26, Vienna.
32 Zahn 1877, Document No. 144.
33 Otorepec –Material, 1363 March 16, Graz.
34 Zahn 1877, Document No. 157. »... conuentiones et pacta dudum habita et firmata
inter nos et nostros fideles et subditos predictos ex parte vna et spectabilem
Vlricum comitum Cilie nomine ... Rudolfi ducis Austrie, Styrie et Karinthie parte ex
altera ...«
35 Otorepec –Material, 1363 October 25, Innsbruck.
36 Otorepec – Material, 1363 December 21, Salzburg.
37 Otorepec – Material, 1364 April 11, Vienna.
M I L I T A R Y H I S T O R Y ! 115

WTT& '$14-3"%#:2 eW
ter za 1000 goldi-
3"%#:2& I:& 4$=$4/:&
gradu in urbarja v
Laškem. 40 Herman
8:& #:& 2& 81>+B-& l"B8-
B>%+"3$2& 0$#"2-1& I:&
leto pozneje. Marca
ReSW&8*"&!>&2$#2$4-&
E1B%:=*& -3& 3:H& l:%!"nove
vojaške kariere
je bila njegova ude-
1:+B"&3"&/%-+"%8/:!&
0$=$4>&"28*%-#8/:'"&
2$#2$4:& E1B%:=*"&
XXX(& 6%-+"%8/-& 0$=$4&
$0-8>#:& +:& $!:3#:-
3-& D>H=:3G-%*& 2&
82$#-& 0:83-*2-L& /-& #$&
je posvetil vojvodi
E1B%:=*>( \V Podatki
o številu udele-
+:3H:2& 8:& 8-H:%& 2&
%".1-;3-=& 2-%-=& 3:koliko
razlikujejo.
A$1:'& E1B%:=*"& 3"#&
B-& 8:& 0$& p-'-"34>&
116 ! V O J A Š K A Z G O D O V I N A
i%$P&l:%!"3&XX(&`:1#8/-&3"&/$3-
H-1>&2&6$38*"3H-&R\RY&7c1%-H=&
2$3&C-H=:3*"1L&4"E&0$2F*1*B6&+B&
0$E'32+L&E>'8B>%'&RYeS?
-.&)"%B>%'"&0$=$4"&>4:1:+-1$&SV&militibus et
2$I*1*E- 43 & !:4& 3#-!-& Y& '%$P$2(& A$1:'& l"38"& -.&
)"'4:B>%'"& -3& l>'"& )$3*P$%*8/:'"& -.& ,%:-
':3."&8$&.&E1B%:=*$!&$4I1-&3"&8:2:%&/"%&*%-#:&
H:1#8/-&'%$P#:(&l:%!"3"&X(&8*"&80%:!1#"1"&3#:'$2&
0:*3"#8*1:*3-&8-3&l:%!"3&XX(&-3&@-1#:!L&8-3&0$kojnega
Ulrika I. Septembra 1377 se je vojska
.B%"1"&3"&O>3"#>&-3&0%:/&93$#!"L&p%$H1"G"L&
Toruna in Marienburga odpotovala do Königs-
B:%'"&74"3"I3#:'"&6"1-3-3'%"4"&2&C>8-#-?L&/#:%&
je bila rezidenca velikega mojstra nemškega
viteškega reda. Od tam so šli prek reke Memel
4$&h:!"-*-#:&7Samayt) na ozemlju Litovcev. Po
39 Otorepec – Gradivo, 1368 junij 23., Dunaj (A).
40 Otorepec – Gradivo, 1368 junij. 23., Dunaj (B).
41 Otorepec – Gradivo, 1369 marec 20., Dunaj.
42" 78,0,44/8"@SQ:9"Z,/+"v`9"`2'">/8=W2E"U$D8/=>)4"8,)/84=>%JJ).
43 Chronik Wigiands von Marburg. Scriptores rerum Prussicarum, II, Frankfurt 1965
(ponatis), str. 584.
Count Hermann II. of Celje in
council in Costance 1415 (Ulrich
@$2&`*F:32'"1-&4"E&0$2F*1*B6&+B&
0$E'32+-&/BOEIB%O&QXcR=
military sense than his
I%$':3%&k1%*F:-&"FF$6panied
Austrian Duke
Albrecht to Rome with
50 experienced mercenaries
and received
from him 4500 florins.
For this amount
of money Albrecht and
Leopold promised him
':3& '$]2& `"8O$2"-&
;$%& USSS& ;1$%*2E-& "28&
':3& '$]2& 7"62*,-& ;$%&
UXSS& ;1$%*2E. 38 A few
6$2':E& 1"'3%-& ;$%& ':3&
E"63& #$B%23C-& :3& ]"E&
promised Bistrica for
VSS& ;1$%*2E- cV as well
as the incomes of the
castle and land register
in Laško for another
1000 florins. 40
Hermann cooperated
with the House of
Habsburg also a year
1"'3%.& W2& !"%F:& QcRV&
Albrecht and Leopold
promised the castle
n*I323,&;$%&QcSS&;1$%ins
which they owed
to him for his military
involvement in
Lombardy. 41
The peak of
Hermann’s military career was his participation in
a crusade led by Austrian Duke Albrecht III. The
crusade was described already by the above men-
'*$238& NBF:32]*%'& *2& :*E& >$36-& 838*F"'38& '$& ':3&
Duke. [U Various sources provide different information
regarding the number of participants. According
'$& j*O*"28& $;& !"%IB%O-& ':3& F"6>"*O2& *2F1B838&
/1I%3F:'&"28&RU&6*1*'*IBE&3'&2$I*1*E- 43 including five
counts. Besides Hans of Magdeburg and Hugo of
!$2';$%'& ;%$6& )%3O32+-& ':%33& 0$B2'E& $;& 0*11*& ]32'&
on a journey with Albrecht. Hermann I was accom-
>"2*38&"1E$&IC&:*E&QXZC3"%&$18&E$2&b3%6"22&WW-&"28&
j*11*"6-&':3&E$2&$;&1"'3&k1%*F:&W.&W2&N3>'36I3%&Qcmm&
38 Otorepec – Material, 1368 April 20, Vienna.
39 Otorepec –Material, 1368 June 23, Vienna (A).
40 Otorepec –Material, 1368 June 23, Vienna (B).
41 Otorepec –Material, 1369 March 20, Vienna.
42" 78,0,44/8"@SQ:9"Z,/+"v`9"`2'">/8=W2E"U$D8/=>)4"8,)/84=>%JJ).
43 Chronik Wigiands von Marburg. Scriptores rerum Prussicarum, II, Frankfurt 1965
(Reproduction), p. 584.

D>H=:3G-%*>&8$&2&3:-!:3$2"3-&2"8-&Bà1-&:4-3$&
B-*/$& 3"& 0$=$4>L& 2& /"*:%-& 8$& /%-+"%#-& $B%";>-
3"1-& .& 4-&@-1#:!&`:1#8/-(&@&1-8*-3-&-.&1:*"&ReWkL&
s katero je Sigismund Hermanu Celjskemu
0$4:1-1&!:8*$&@"%"+4-3&.&!-*3-H$&-3&0%-8*"3--
I;:!&3"&O%"2-&-3&2&/"*:%-&3"I*:2"&*>4-&."81>':&
`:1#8/-=L 45 &-.2:!$&3:/"#&2:;&$&0$=$4>(&@-1#:!&
3"#& B-& 8:& '"& >4:1:+-1& 8& 0%"0$%#:!& -3& 82$#-!-&
$B$%$+:3H-L&8:&8%:;"1&8&*>%I/$&2$#8/$&0%-&6$2-nu
(73]3) ter se umaknil proti trdnjavi 5+%*1.&
A$.3:#:&#:&8$4:1$2"1&I:&0%-&01:3#:3#>&-3&0$+-'"nju
pokrajine. Ob vrnitvi je umrl na Dunaju. 46
O%>'-& *"/& 0$=$4L& /-& '"& #:& 80:*& $%'"3-.-%"1&
$'%8/-&/%"1#&D-'-8!>34L&#:&B-1&1:*"&ReWS(&c4:-
1:+-1& 8:& '"& #:& l:%!"3& XX(& A%:4& $4=$4$!& #:&
3"%:4-1& $0$%$/$& -3& 8& 0%:$8*"1$& /%-+"%8/$& 2$#sko
odšel proti Bolgariji. 47 & 6%-+"%#-& 8$& 3"#0%:#&
osvojili bolgarsko prestolnico Vidim ter se
3"*$&$B%3-1-&0%$*-&C"=$2:!&7_%C:$) in Donavi.
D:0*:!B%"&ReWS&8:&#:&23:1"&B-*/"L&/-&8:&#:&."&
/%-+"%8/$&2$#8/$&/$3;"1"&8&/"*"8*%$P$(&@:;-3"&
vojakov je bila ubita ali pa so utonili v Donavi.
A$B:'3-*-&#:&>80:1$&1:&0:I;-H-L&!:4&3#-!-&*>4-&
/%"1#>&D-'-8!>34>L&/-&'"&#:&0$!"'"1&%:I-*-&0%"2&
Herman. Pred Turki se jim je uspelo umakniti
4$&6$38*"3*-3$01"L&$4&*"!&0"&0%:/&C$4$8"&-3&
O>B%$23-/"&3"."#&3"&M'%8/$L&/#:%&81:4-#$&3$2-&
44"78,0,44/8"@SQ:9"Z,/+"v`9"&/8W"KAQOTRA.
45" k)28/?/="O"#8%+,&29"@KA:"%&E*4)"@T."kD-%&$-/'2")*+,"&f"e%+,-%"N0,3,1$%49"Codex
diplomaticus regni Croatie, Dalmatiae et Slavoniae, XVIII, Zagreb 1990, str. 168.
46"k"`,$-/02&,"408),"'%"H*'%-*"?2823%-2"Z/2?2$+"W"H*'%-%9"H*'%-41,"%'%$,",'"M/$-41%"
182',1%."78,0."a%'/W"F$,'%89"Podoba Celjskih grofov v narativnih virih; Historia, XI,
Ljubljana 2005, str. 184.
47 Haus- Hof- und Staatsarchiv Wien, Allgemeine Urkundenreihe, 1396 junij 23.
the army gathered in Vienna and travelled through
?2$#6-& j%$F1"]-& 5$%B2& "28& !"%*32IB%O& '$& ':3& ;*-
2"1& 83E'*2"'*$2& 7q2*OEI3%O& 9'$8"CfE& 7"1*2*2O%"8& *2&
`BEE*"=-&]:3%3&':3&!"E'3%&$;&K3%6"2&72*O:'&_%83%&
had its residence. From there the army travelled
"F%$EE&':3&%*@3%&!3631&'$&N"6$O*'*32&91*'.&n36"*'*#"=&
on Lithuanian territory. According to Suchenwirt
the only battle during the march took place in an
unknown village during which crusaders had done
away with the Lithuanians and burnt down the
village.
b$]3@3%-& 6$%3& *6>$%'"2'& ':"2& ':3& I"''13& *'E31;&
]"E&]:"'&;$11$]38.&/1I%3F:'-&]:$E3&6"*2&O$"1&$;&:*E&
'%"@311*2O&'$&':3&2$%':&]"E&'$&I3F$63&"&72*O:'-&%3-
F3*@38& ,2*O:':$$8& ]:*F:-& "FF$%8*2O& '$& NBF:32]*%'-&
was awarded to him by Herman of Cilli. Herman
1*;'38&:*E&E]$%8&B>&*2&':3&"*%&"28&E"*8L&l)3''3%&'$&I3&
a knight than a servant!’ and touched Albrecht with
':3&I1"83.&/&;3"E'&;$11$]38-&$%O"2*+38&IC&b3%6"22&
*2& /1I%3F:'fE& :$2$B%.& YU& >3$>13& ]3%3& *2@*'38.& 5:3C&
were served nine dishes and wine from Vipava
9j*>>"F:3%=-&D#B'$63%&9DB'32I3%O3%=&"28&9>%$I"I1C=&
White Riesling (Rainfal). 44 Most of the food and all
the wine had to be brought by Hermann from his
homeland!
j$%':& 632'*$2*2O& "%3& "1E$& ']$& F"6>"*O2E-& *2volving
the Counts of Cilli. The first was the march
"O"*2E'&':3&5B%,E-&$%O"2*+38&*2&QcVU&IC&9*2&':"'&>3-
%*$8& $21C=& bB2O"%*"2& 7*2O& N*O*E6B28.& j*11*"6& $;&
Cilli also participated in the campaign. In a docu-
632'&;%$6&QcVm-&]*':&]:*F:&N*O*E6B28&8$2"'38&'$&
b3%6"2&$;&0*11*&':3&'$]2&G"%"(8*2&]*':&"&'$11&E'"-
'*$2&"28&"&>$%'&"'&':3&%*@3%&4%"@"-&"28&]:*F:&E'"'3E&
"1E$&63%*'E&$;&':3&0$B2'E&$;&0*11*-&]3&F"2&;*28&6$%3&
information on the campaign itself. 45 William par-
'*F*>"'38&]*':&"&I"223%&"28&:*E&"%638&632-&63'&':3&
5B%,*E:&"%6C&23"%&7$@*2&973]3=&"28&]*':8%3]&'$-
]"%8E& ':3& ;$%'*;*F"'*$2& 5+%*1.& D"'3%& :3& >"%'*F*>"'38&
"1E$&*2&>1B283%*2O&"28&IB%2*2O&@*11"O3E.&_2&:*E&]"C&
back Wiliam died in Vienna. 46
5:3& E3F$28& F"6>"*O2-& "1E$& $%O"2*+38& IC&
bB2O"%*"2& 7*2O& N*O*E6B28-& '$$,& >1"F3& *2& QcVR.&
Hermann II also participated in this march. Before
his departure he made a testament and set off towards
Bulgaria with the rest of the crusaders 47 who
first conquered the Bulgarian capital Vidin and then
F$2'*2B38& ':3& 6"%F:& '$]"%8E& `":$@$& 9_%C:$=& "28&
44"78,0,44/8"@SQ:9"Z,/+"v`9"&/84/4"KAQOTRA.
45" k)28/?/="OF%)/8,%$9"@KA:"U*E*4)"@T."U$42"?*D$,4>/+",'f"e%+,-%"N0,3,1$%49"Codex
diplomaticus regni Croatie, Dalmatiae et Slavoniae, XVIII, Zagreb 1990, p. 168.
46 In Vienna William's death was reported by Leopold of Vienna, the Vienna Annals
and the Cilli Chronicles. Cf. Janez Mlinar, Podoba Celjskih grofov v narativnih virih;
Historia, XI, Ljubljana 2005, p. 184.
47 Haus- Hof- und Staatsarchiv Wien, Allgemeine Urkundenreihe, 1396 June 23.
M I L I T A R Y H I S T O R Y ! 117

2-%-&$&D-'-8!>34>&"0%-1"&ReWk( 48 Ker je šlo za
/%-+"%8/-&0$=$4L&2:%#:*3$&3-*-&@-1#:!&3-*-&l:%-
!"3& 3-8*"& -!:1"& 0%:4& $;!-& ."81>+/"L& 2:34"%&
#:&-!:1"&>4:1:+B"&3"&0$=$4>&.1"8*-&."&l:%!"-
3"&$'%$!3:&0$81:4-H:(&`:1#8/-&8$&3"!%:;&/$*&
."=2"1$&$4&$'%8/:'"&/%"1#"&D-'-8!>34"&4$B-1-&
$B8:+3:&0$8:8*-&2&9"'$%#>&*:%&8:&%$4B-38/$&_&8&
0$%$/$&l:%!"3$2:&=;:%/:&,"%B"%:&_&0$2:."1-&
.&3#-!(&,-*/"&#:&B-1"&$48/$;3"&4:8/"&."&>80:-
I3$& 0$1-*-;3$& /"%-:%$& l:%!"3"& `:1#8/:'"L& /-&
#:&3"&/$3H>&0%-0:1#"1"&4$&0$/3:+:3#"&%$4B-3:&
leta 1436. \W
6"#&8*"&*$%:#&H:1#8/-!&'%$P$!&0%-3:81"&3"#:mništvo
in vojaško udejstvovanje? Sodelova-
3#:& 3"&2$#"I/:!& 0$=$4>&3-&B-1$& 1:& 0%-1$+3$8*&
."&B$#:2"3#:&-3&"2"3*>%$L&"!0"/&#:&>4:1:+:3H>&
0$3>#"1$& 2:1-/$& 2:;(& F3"& $4& 0$!:!B3-=& 0$sledic
takšnega sodelovanja je bilo utrjevanje
ugleda posameznika in rodbine. Ugled pa je
B-1&:4:3&$4&3"#0$!:!B3:#I-=&"*%-B>*$2&2&8%:-
43#:2:I/-& 4%>+B-(& @8"#& *$1-/$& /$*& m/4$& 8-nL& #:&
bilo pomembno tudi »kaj si«. Brez ugleda ni
B-1$& 3"0%:4$2"3#"& 0$& 4%>+B:3-& 1:8*2-H-(& h$2neški
so bili – kar poudarja tudi nemški kralj
42-/&,"2"%8/-&2&1-8*-3-L&8&/"*:%$&#-=&#:&0$2-šal
50 & _& 0$2.4-'3#:3-& 2& H:1#8/:& '%$P:& 3"& 3#-=$vo
lastno in ne na vladarjevo pobudo. Janez
Vetrinjski za povišanje navaja precej trivialne
%".1$':L& /-& 0"& 3".$%3$& /"+:#$& 0$!:3& >'1:4"&
."& *"/%"*3$& 4%>+B$(& K"#0$!:!B3:#I-& %".1$'&
."&N%-4:%-/$2$&0$B>4$L&3"#&#-=&0$2-I"#$&2&'%$-
P:L& 3"#& B-& B-1$& 3"!%:;& 2.*%"#3$& 3"41:'$2"3#:&
(frequentibus stimulis?& 3#:'$2:& +:3:& O-:!>*&
p"18::#:28/:L&/-&#:&B-1"&0%:4&*:!&0$%$;:3"&.&
3:/-!&$'%8/-!&'%$P$!(&MB&23$2-;3-&0$%$/-&8:&
#-&#:&.4:1$&0$3-+:2"13$L&4"&#:&3:&B-&2:;&3"81"vljali
enako kot prej. 51 Vendar prošnja vladarju
3:&B-&."4$8*$2"1"L&;:&3:&B-&%$4B-3"&+:&0%:#&3:-
P$%!"13$&4$8:'1"&*$1-/I3:'"&>'1:4"&!:4&4%>-
'-!-&0%-0"43-/-&$/$1-I/:'"&01:!8*2"L&/$*&'"&#:&
!$%"1"&-!:*-&%$4B-3"&'%$P$2(&c80:I3"&2$#"I/"&
/"%-:%"&#:&28:/"/$%&!$;3$&0%-80:2"1"&/&-.0$1nitvi
tega prvega pogoja.
Po drugi strani je najemništvo preudarne-
!>&0$8"!:.3-/>&$!$'$;"1$&/$0-;:3#:&0%:H:#-
I3#-=&P-3"3;3-=&8%:48*:2L&/-&8$&!>&$B&0"!:*3-&
48 O bitki prim. Aziz Atiya, The Crusade of Nicopolis, London 1934. V slovenskem
jeziku: Ignacij Voje, Bitka pri Nikopolju leta 1396 – prelomnica za celjske grofe, v:
Slovenica Balcanica; Zgodovinske študije, Ljubljana 2005, str. 23–32.
49" k)28/?/="O"#8%+,&29"@TKB"'2&/0D/8"KR.9"78%E%.
50 Kos 1996, str. 212.
51 Fedor Schneider, Johannis Abbatis Victoriensis Liber certarum historiarum; Monumenta
Germaniae Historica in usum scholarum separatim editi, 36/2, Hannover,
Leipzig 1910, str. 188.
118 ! V O J A Š K A Z G O D O V I N A
':3&4"2BI3.&W2&N3>'36I3%&QcVR&"&I"''13&'$$,&>1"F3&
which ended in disaster for the crusaders. Most of
the men were either killed or drowned in the Danube.
Few crusaders managed to escape. Among them was
"1E$& 7*2O& N*O*E6B28& ]:$& ]"E& :31>38& *2& 3EF">*2O&
by Hermann. They managed to run away from the
5B%,E& "28& ]*':8%3]& '$& 0$2E'"2'*2$>13-& "28& ;%$6&
there through Rodos and Dubrovnik back to Aquileia
]:3%3& 7*2O& N*O*E6B28& ">>3"%38& "O"*2& *2& />%*1. 48
Since this was a crusade William and Hermann
>%$I"I1C&8*8&2$'&':*2,&$;&6",*2O&6$23C-&:$]3@3%-&
':3*%& >"%'*F*>"'*$2& :"8& ;"%Z%3"F:*2O& F$2E3dB32F3E-&
especially for Hermann. In order to thank the Counts
$;&0*11*-&7*2O&N*O*6B28&O"@3&':36&1"%O3&>%$>3%'*3E&*2&
?"O$%#3-&]:*13&b3%6"2fE&8"BO:'3%&)"%I"%"&6"%%*38&
*2'$&7*2O&N*O*E6B28fE&;"6*1C.&5:*E&I"''13&]"E&"F'Bally
the starting point of his political career which
ended with his family members being awarded the
title Prince. [V
So what did mercenarism and military engage-
632'E&I%*2O&'$&':3&0$B2'E&$;&0*11*Ä&H"%'*F*>"'*$2&$2&
military campaign did not offer only an opportunity
;$%&F$6I"'&"28&"8@32'B%3-&IB'&6BF:&6$%3.&_23&$;&
the significant outcomes of such participation was
':3&IB*18*2O&$;&%3>B'"'*$2-&I$':-&$;&"2&*28*@*8B"1&"28&
his family. Reputation was one of the most important
values on which Medieval society was based. It
]"E&#BE'&"E&*6>$%'"2'&l]:$&C$B&]3%3f&"E&l]:"'&C$B&
were’. Without reputation there was no advancement
within society. In a document with which he pro-
6$'38&':3&N"223,- 50 &7*2O&D$B*E&$;&)"@"%*"&E'%3EE38&
that they were promoted to Counts of Cilli on their
$]2-& "28& 2$'& $2& ':3& 7*2OfE& *2*'*"'*@3.& 5:3& %3"E$2E&
;$%& ':3& >%$6$'*$2-& 632'*$238& IC& e$:2& $;& G*,'%*2O-&
"%3&%"':3%&'%*@*"1-&:$]3@3%-&':3C&%3;13F'&':3&63"2*2O&
of reputation for Medieval society. The main reason
for Frederick’s initiative regarding the promotion to
count was constant pestering (frequentibus stimulis)
of his wife Diemut Walsee who had already been
married to a Hungarian count. She found it humiliating
not to be addressed as Countess any more. 51
It is obvious that the request for promotion alone
]$B18&2$'&:"@3&I332&32$BO:&;$%&7*2O&D$B*E&'$&F$6ply
with it if the Sannek had not achieved the level of
reputation within the aristocrat society that was expected
from families of counts. A successful military
48 On the battle, Aziz Atiya, The Crusade of Nicopolis, London 1934. In Slovenian
language: Ignacij Voje, Bitka pri Nikopolju leta 1396 – prelomnica za celjske grofe,
in: Slovenica Balcanica; Zgodovinske študije, Ljubljana 2005, pp. 23–32.
49" "k)28/?/="OF%)/8,%$9"@TKB"h2&/0D/8"KR9"78%E%.
50 Kos 1996, p. 212.
51 Fedor Schneider, Johannis Abbatis Victoriensis Liber certarum historiarum; Monumenta
Germaniae Historica in usum scholarum separatim editi, 36/2, Hannover,
Leipzig 1910, p. 188.

3"1$+B:3-& 0$1-*-/-& $!$'$;-1"& 2.0$8*"2-*:2& *%-
43:&:/$3$!8/:&0$41"':(&94-&8:L&4"&8$&H:1#8/-&
'%$P#:&.3"1-&!$4%$&-./$%-8*-*-&8%:48*2"L&0%-4$-
B1#:3"& 2& 2$#"I/-=& 81>+B"=(& 5"/$& #:& 3"& 0%-!:%&
N%-4:%-/& h$23:I/-(& ."& 28$*$L& /-& #$& #:& 4$B-1& 2&
.";:*/>& 1:*"& ReeS& ."& 82$#$& 81>+B$& 3"& $'%8/-&
!:#-L&4$B%$&1:*$&0$.3:#:&/>0-1&'%"4&A$48%:4$&.&
28:!L&/"%&#:&8$4-1$&.%"2:3( YV Podobno sta Ulrik
X(&-3&l:%!"3&X(&8%:48*2"L&/-&8*"&#-=&0%-4$B-1"&2&
81>+B-&2$#2$4:&C>4$1P"&2&2$#3-&0%$*-&$'1:#8/:-
!>&0"*%-"%="*>L&0$%"B-1"&."&3"/>0&'%"4>&A$1-
=$2&i%"4:HL&."&/"*:%:'"&8*"&c1%-/>&A$1=$'%"#skemu
in Konradu Gallu maja 1364 odštela
7000 goldinarjev. 53 Druga polovica 14. stoletja
#:&B-1$&801$=&$B4$B#:L&/$&8$&H:1#8/-&'%$P#:&.&3"-
/>0-&!$;3$&%".I-%-1-&82$#$&0$8:8*(&
K"#:!3-I/-&0$=$4-&8$&B-1-&*>4-&-.#:!3"&0%--
1$+3$8*&."&2.0$8*"21#"3#:&8*-/$2&-3&I-%#:3#:&0$-
.3"38*:2(&):48:B$#3$&.">0"3#:L&/-&8:&#:&8*/"1$&
3"&2$#"I/:!&0$=$4>L&8:&#:&0$'$8*$&3"4"1#:2"1$&
tudi v obdobju miru. Celjski so ta vidik najemništva
znali zelo dobro izkoristiti. Herman
I. se je tako po posredovanju ogrskega kralja
42-/"& 0$%$;-1& .& 3#:'$2$& 82"/-3#$& 6"*"%-3$&
6$*%$!"3-ÜL&4:4-3#$&B$8"38/:&/%$3:(&O"&#:&B-1&
0%"2&42-/&!$;3$&."-3*:%:8-%"3&."&8/1:3-*:2&
*:'"&."/$3"L&3"/".>#:&4:#8*2$L&4"&#:&4$*$&2&2-šini
10.000 dukatov Katarini daroval prav on.
K tej vsoti je Herman I. dodal še 5000 dukatov
za jutrnjo ter ji septembra 1374 za celotno vsoto
zastavil grad Krško in Gornjo Vipavo. 54 Ludvik
je bil tudi posrednik pri poroki Hermano-
2:'"&3:;"/"&@-1#:!"L&8-3"&c1%-/"&X(&@-1#:!&8:&#:&
3"!%:;&0$%$;-1&.&42-/$2$&8:8*%-;3$L&=;:%/$&
poljskega kralja Kazimirja. 55 &@%=>3:H&*"/I3-=&
8*-/$2&0"&#:&B-1"&0$%$/"&,"%B"%:&`:1#8/:L&=;:%:&
l:%!"3"&XX(L&8&D-'-8!>34$!&/8:!B>%I/-!L&
$'%8/-!L& ;:I/-!& -3& 0$.3:#I-!& 3:!I/-!& /%"ljem
in cesarjem. Ta je bila posledica Herma-
3$2-=&4:#"3#L&/-&8$&/$%-8*-1"&D-'-8!>34>(&
14. stoletje je bilo zelo pomembno v razvoju
%$4B-3:& H:1#8/-=& '%$P$2(& N%-4:%-/& X(& *:%& 3#:'$va
sinova Ulrik I. in Herman I. so utirali pota
82$#-!&0$*$!H:!(&9&!$4%$&0$1-*-/$L&2& /"*:%-&
8*"&$4-'%"1-&0$!:!B3$&21$'$&3#-=$2"&2$#"I/"&
80%:*3$8*&-3&80$8$B3$8*L&#-!&#:&>80:1$&0%:8:;-&
ozke lokalne štajerske okvire in se uveljaviti v
širšem srednjeevropskem prostoru. Vsi trije so
52 Kos 1996, str. 173.
53 Otorepec – Gradivo, 1364 maj 18.
54 Otorepec – Gradivo, 1374 september 16.
55 Franz Krones, Die Freien von Saneck und ihre Chronik als Grafen von Cilli; Zweiter
Teil: Die Cillier Chronik9"#8%W"@SSK9"4)8.":QO:K."78,0.")*+,"Z*+2&,1"F."#2$,%9"Kronika
Grofov Celjskih, Celje 1972, str. 14.
career certainly made a considerable contribution to
;B1;*11632'&$;&':*E&>%3%3dB*E*'3.&_2&':3&$':3%&:"28-&
mercenarism could be exploited by wise individuals
;$%&3"%2*2O&"&F$2E*83%"I13&"6$B2'&$;&6$23C-&]:*F:-&
*;&*2@3E'38&]311-&F$B18&>%$@*83&;*%6&3F$2$6*F&;$B28"tions.
It seems that the Counts of Cilli wisely invested
':3&"EE3'E-&O"*238&8B%*2O&':3*%&6*1*'"%C&E3%@*F3.&P$%&
3a"6>13-& ;$%& ':3& 6$23C& :3& 3"%238& *2& QccR& 8B%*2O&
:*E& E3%@*F3& "'& ':3& bB2O"%*"2& I$%83%-& P%383%*F,& $;&
Sannek bought the castle Podsreda only a year later.
XU & N*6*1"%1C-& k1%*F:& W& "28& b3%6"22& W& E>32'& ':3&
6$23C-&3"%238&8B%*2O&E3%@*F3&]*':&4B,3&`B8$1;&*2&"&
]"%&"O"*2E'&':3&H"'%*"%F:"'3&$;&/dB*13*"-&$2&IBC*2O&
':3& F"E'13& H$1:$@& K%"83F-& ;$%& ]:*F:-& *2& !"C& QcR[-&
':3C& >"*8& '$& k1%*F:& $;& H$1:$@& K%"83F& "28& 7$2%"8&
Gall 7000 florins. 53 & W2& O323%"1-& 8B%*2O& ':3& E3F$28&
half of the 14 th century the Counts of Cilli considerably
expanded their property.
Military campaign were also an ideal opportunity
;$%& 3a>"28*2O& 23']$%,E& $;& F$2'"F'E.& !B'B"1& '%BE'-&
3E'"I1*E:38& 8B%*2O& F"6>"*O2-& $;'32& F$2'*2B38& "1E$&
after the conflicts. The Counts of Cilli knew how to
I3E'&3a>1$*'&':*E&"E>3F'&$;&63%F32"%*E6.&P$%&3a"6>13-&
;$11$]*2O& ':3& 638*"'*$2& $;& bB2O"%*"2& 7*2O& D$B*E-&
b3%6"22& W& 6"%%*38& :*E& E*E'3%Z*2Z1"]-& 7"'"%*2"&
7$'%$6"2*à-&"2&:3*%&'$&)$E2*"2&F%$]2.&5:"'&D$B*E&
was extremely in favour of this marriage is reflected
in the fact that he himself contributed a dowry
;$%&7"'"%*2"-&]$%':&QS-SSS&8BF"'E.&5$&':*E&"6$B2'&
b3%6"22&W&"8838&"2$':3%&X-SSS&8BF"'E&"E&"&]388*2O&
present and in September 1374 pledged the castles
7%J,$& "28& K$%2#"& G*>"@"& ;$%& ':*E& "6$B2'. 54 Louis
was also a mediator at the wedding of Hermann’s
23>:3]&j*11*"6-&':3&E$2&$;&k1%*F:&W.&j*11*"6&6"%-
%*38& D$B*Ef& F$BE*2-& ':3& 8"BO:'3%& $;& H$1*E:& 7*2O&
7"+*6*%. 55 The peak of these contacts was a wedding
I3']332&)"%I"%"&$;&0*11*-&':3&8"BO:'3%&$;&b3%6"22&
WW-& "28& N*O*E6B28& $;& DBa36I$B%O-& ':3& bB2O"%*"2&
"28& 0+3F:& 7*2O& "28& 1"'3%& "1E$& K3%6"2& 7*2O& "28&
Emperor. This wedding was a result of Hermann’s
actions in favour of Sigismund.
The 14 th century was extremely important in the
83@31$>632'& $;& ':3& 0$B2'E& $;& 0*11*.& P%383%*F,& W-& "E&
well as their sons Ulrich I and Hermann I paved the
path for their descendants. Through their wise pol-
*FC-& *2F1B8*2O& ':3*%& 6*1*'"%C& E,*11E& "28& F">"I*1*'*3E-&
they managed to go beyond narrow local Styrian
frameworks and established themselves in Central
52 Kos 1996, p. 173.
53 Otorepec –Material, 1364 May 18.
54 Otorepec –Material, 1374 September 16.
55 Franz Krones, Die Freien von Saneck und ihre Chronik als Grafen von Cilli; Zweiter
Teil: Die Cillier Chronik, Graz 1883, pp. 72–73. Also Ludovik M. Golia, Kronika
Grofov Celjskih, Celje 1972, p. 14.
M I L I T A R Y H I S T O R Y ! 119

82$#-!&3"81:43-/$!&0%-0%"2-1-&!$;3:&8$H-"13:&
-3& :/$3$!8/:& *:!:1#:L& /-& 8$& B-1-& 0$'$#& ."& 2%-
=>3:H&%$4B-3:&0$4&l:%!"3$!&XX(&-3&3#:'$2-!&
23>/$!&c1%-/$!&XX(&,%:.&0%2-=&."'$*$2$&3:&B-&
B-1$&4%>'-=(
/$,0"5"#
K"#:!3-I*2$&#:&2&'$80$4"%8/:!&-3&4%>+B:-
3:!&%".2$#>&%$4B-3:&H:1#8/-=&'%$P$2&$4-'%"1$&
0$!:!B3$&21$'$(&9&.";:*/-&2&Re(&8*$1:*#>&#:&*"&
4:#"23$8*&0%-&`:1#8/-=&4$8:'1"&2%=>3:H&.&c1%-kom
I. in Hermanom I. v drugi polovici 14. stoletja.
Z najemništvom si je rodbina ustvarila
*%43$&0$41"'$L&/-&#:&0$!:3-1"&$48/$;3$&4:8/$&
za poznejše pospešeno napredovanje na socialni
lestvici.
Najemništvo je na razvoj rodbine vplivalo
3"&2:;&3";-3$2(&A$&:3-&8*%"3-&8$&3#:3-&;1"3-&.&
>4:1:+B$& 3"& 2$#"I/:!& 0$=$4>& 0%-4$B-1-& !$-
+3$8*L&4"&8$&8-&.&2$#"I/-!-&>80:=-&2:;"1-&>'1:4&
!:4&0%:$8*"1-!&01:!8*2$!&"1-&0"&>*%#:2"1-&+:&
pridobljenega. Celjski so ta vidik najemništva
.3"1-&4$4$B%"&-./$%-8*-*-L&/"%&8:&#:&$41-;3$&0$-
/"."1$&3"&/%-+"%8/:!&0$=$4>&"28*%-#8/:'"&2$#-
2$4:&E1B%:=*"&XXX(&1:*"&RekkL&3"&/"*:%:!&8$&-.-
!:4&`:1#8/-=&8$4:1$2"1-&l:%!"3&X(L&l:%!"3&XX(&
in Viljem I. in kjer je Herman I. odigral vlogo
nekakšnega doajena zbranega plemstva.
A$& 4%>'-& 8*%"3-& #:& 3"#:!3-I*2$& $!$'$;-1$&
H:1#8/-!& '%$P$!L& 4"& 8$& .B%"1-& 0%:H:#I3#"& P--
3"3;3"& 8%:48*2"L& /-& 8$& #-=& .3"1-& '$80$4"%3$&
>0$%"B-*-(&A$&2:;-3-&8$&#-=&21$+-1-&2&3"/>0:&.:-
!1#-I/:& 0$8:8*-& 730%(& A$48%:4"& ReeSL& A$1=$2&
Gradec 1364). Zlasti v drugi polovici 14. stole-
*#"&8$&0%:428:!&l"B8B>%+"3-&0$01";:2"1-&2$#"-
I/:&8*$%-*2:&`:1#8/-=&*"/$L&4"&8$&#-!&."8*"21#"1-&
82$#:& 0$8:8*-(& 9& 21"'"3#:!& *"/$& 0%-4$B1#:3-=&
8%:48*:2&8$&8-&H:1#8/-&'%$P#:&."'$*$2-1-&8*"B-1:3&
-3&4$1'$%$;:3&2-%&4$=$4/"&*:%&8-&8&*:!&>*%#:2"1-&
'$80$4"%8/-&0$1$+"#(
5%:*#-& 2-4-/& 3"#:!3-I*2"L& /-& 8$& '"& `:1#8/-&
0%"2& *"/$& /"%& 8:& 4"& 4$B%$& -./$%-8*-1-L& #:& I-%--
*:2&8$H-"13:&!%:+:(&K"#:!3-I/-&0$=$4-&8$&B-1-&
3"!%:;&$41-;3"&0%-1$+3$8*&."&I-%#:3#:&-3&0$'1"bljanje
stikov med plemstvom. Tako sklenjena
zavezništva in osebna prijateljstva so bila tudi
."%"4-&$/$1-I;-3&3"8*"3/"&2:1-/$&*%43:#I"L&/$*&
B-&B-1"&8-H:%(&`:1#8/-!&'%$P$!&#:&$B&0$!$;-&*:=&
stikov uspelo sklepati zakonske zveze z vidnimi
kraljevimi rodbinami. Po posredovanju
ogrskega kralja Ludvika se je Herman I. poro-
;-1&.&42-/$2$&82"/-3#$&6"*"%-3$&6$*%$!"3-ÜL&
120 ! V O J A Š K A Z G O D O V I N A
European territory. The three of them provided their
successors with strong social and economic foundations
which were a prerequisite for achieving the peak
of family development under the rule of Hermann II
and his grandson Ulrich II. Without the former there
would not have been the latter!
Summary
Mercenarism played an important role within the
economic and social development of the Counts of
Cilli who started with mercenary activities in the 13 th
century. These reached their highest point in the second
half of the 14 th century under the rule of Ulrich I
and Hermann I. Through mercenarism activities the
family formed strong economic foundations which
served as a basis for their subsequent rapid rise on
the hierarchical line.
Mercenarism influenced the development of the
;"6*1C&*2&@"%*$BE&]"CE.&_2&$23&:"28&':3&>"%'*F*>"tion
in military campaigns provided the family with
the opportunity to increase their reputation among
the nobility and to consolidate the already gained
reputation. The Counts of Cilli successfully exploited
this aspect of mercenarism which was reflected also
in the crusade led by Austrian Duke Albrecht III in
Qcmm.&b3%6"22&W-&b3%6"22&WW&"28&j*11*"6&W&>"%'*F*-
>"'38&*2&':*E&F%BE"83-&"28&b3%6"22&W&>1"C38&':3&%$13&
of the doyen within the participating nobility.
_2& ':3& $':3%& :"28& 63%F32"%*E6& >%$@*838& ':3&
Counts of Cilli with the opportunity to accumulate
considerable financial resources which they used
very efficiently; they mostly spent them on buying
':3&>%$>3%'C&93.O.&H$8E%38"&*2&QccR-&H$1:$@&K%"83F&
in 1364). In the second half of the 14 th century the
House of Habsburg paid the Count of Cilli for their
military services by pledging them land. By investing
these resources the Counts of Cilli created a stable
and long-term source of income and consolidated
their economic basis.
5:3&':*%8&"E>3F'&$;&63%F32"%*E6-&"1E$&3;;3F'*@31C&
3a>1$*'38&IC&':3&0$B2'E&$;&0*11*-&]"E&':3&3a>"2E*$2&
$;& E$F*"1& F$2'"F'E-& E*2F3& 6*1*'"%C& F"6>"*O2E& >%3sented
an excellent opportunity for this. Alliances
and friendships made in war were stronger than
those made in normal circumstances. Through these
contacts the Counts of Cilli managed to marry into
distinguished royal families. Following the media-
'*$2&$;&bB2O"%*"2&7*2O&D$B*E-&b3%6"22&W&6"%%*38&
D$*E& E*E'3%Z*2Z1"]-& 0"':3%*23& 7$'%$6"2*à-& "2& :3*%&
to Bosnian crown. Louis was also a mediator at the
]388*2O& $;& b3%6"22fE& 23>:3]& j*11*"6-& ':3& E$2& $;&
k1%*F:&W-&]:$&6"%%*38&D$B*Ef&F$BE*2-&':3&8"BO:'3%&$;&

dedinjo bosanske krone. Ludvik je bil posre-
43-/& *>4-& 0%-& 0$%$/-& l:%!"3$2:'"& 3:;"/"&
@-1#:!"(&5"&8:&#:&3"!%:;&0$%$;-1&.&42-/$2$&
8:8*%-;3$L& =;:%/$& 0$1#8/:'"& /%"1#"& 6".-!-%#"(&
5-&8*-/-&8$&4$8:'1-&2%=>3:H&8&0$%$/$&,"%B"%:L&
=;:%:&l:%!"3"&XX(L&.&$'%8/-!&/%"1#:!&*:%&0$znejšim
nemškim kraljem in cesarjem Sigismundom.
Premišljena politika pripadnikov rodbine
H:1#8/-=&'%$P$2&+:&2&R\(&8*$1:*#>&#:&B-1"&4%>+B:3"&
in ekonomska podlaga za poznejši vzpon rod-
B-3:L&/-&#:&4$+-2:1"&2%=>3:H&8&l:%!"3$!&XX(&-3&
c1%-/$!&XX(&*:%&0$/3:+:3#:!&%$4B-3:&1:*"&R\eS(&
,%:.&0%2-=&."'$*$2$&3:&B-&B-1$&*>4-&4%>'-=(
H$1*E:&7*2O&7"+*6*%.&5:3&>3",&$;&':3E3&F$2'"F'E&]"E&
"& ]388*2O& I3']332& )"%I"%"& $;& 0*11*-& ':3& 8"BO:'3%&
$;& b3%6"22& WW-& "28& N*O*E6B28& $;& DBa36IB%O-& ':3&
bB2O"%*"2&"28&0+3F:&7*2O&"28&1"'3%&"1E$&K3%6"2&
7*2O&"28&3%$%.&
431*I3%"'3&>$1*FC-&>%"F'*F38&IC&':3&0$B2'E&$;&0*11*&
already back in the 14 th &F32'B%C-&F%3"'38&"&E$F*"1&"28&
economic basis for the later rise of the family which
reached its highest point under the rule of Hermann
WW& "28& k1%*F:& WW-& "28& FB16*2"'38& *2& ':3& ;"6*1C& I3ing
promoted into the rank of princes. Without the
former there would not have been the latter!
M I L I T A R Y H I S T O R Y ! 121

122 ! V O J A Š K A Z G O D O V I N A

I1"2-+","3#$&$1$O+"&)-&($+-7&$41":7&
)0&'*$,"-'#)>&:60"+'#)>&0()1#&
Medieval Arms and Armour in Slovenian Museum
Collections
!
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mag. arheologije, univ. dipl. zgodovinar, kustos
Narodni muzej Slovenije, Prešernova 20, 1000 Ljubljana; e-mail: tomaz.nabergoj@nms.si
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kot pomembna vira za vojno in vojaško zgodovino
slovenskega ozemlja v srednjem veku.
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objaviti gradivo kot nujni temelj za nadaljnje
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raziskave. Te so pogoj za nove so-
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!$4:1-&$%$+-#&-3&3"0%"2L&8&8H:38/-!-&-3&2-%*>alnimi
prikazi.
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vojaško zgodovino slovenskega ozemlja ter
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Abstract
The article gives an overview of arms and armour
in Slovenian museum collections describing these
as two significant sources for researching war and
military history on Slovenian territory in the Middle
/O3E.&N$&;"%-&':3C&:"@3&2$'&I332&EBI#3F'&'$&*2Z83>':&
%3E3"%F:& "28& ]3%3-& BEB"11C-& 2$'& $2& 3a:*I*'*$2.& 5:3&
biggest collection of arms and armour is preserved
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;%$6& ':3& D#BI1#"2*F"& %*@3%-& E6"113%& F$113F'*$2E& "%3&
:$BE38&IC&*28*@*8B"1&%3O*$2"1&"28&F*'C&6BE3B6E-&*2&
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'"E,E& $;& 6BE3B6E& "%3& '$& F$2E3%@3-& '$& 6",3& "2& *2ventory
of finds and to catalogue objects as a necessary
basis for further research that should include
EF*32'*;*F&"28&'3F:2*F"1&"2"1CE3E-&"%F:"3$1$O*F"1&"28&
historical research. These are the conditions for new
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6$831E&$;&"%6E&"28&83@*F3E-&]*':&>3%;$%6"2F3E&"28&
virtual images.
Key words:& "%6E-& "%6$B%-& !*8813& /O3E-& 6BE3-
B6E-&"%F:"3$1$OC-&:*E'$%C-&EF*32'*;*F&%3E3"%F:-&3a>3Z
rimental archaeology.
The arms and armour in Slovenian museum collections
are important sources for researching the
]"%&"28&6*1*'"%C&:*E'$%C&$;&':3&N1$@32*"2&'3%%*'$%C-&
as well as other aspects of medieval history. Along
]*':&]%*''32&8$FB632'E&"28&]$%,E&$;&"%'-&"E&]311&"E&
"%F:"3$1$O*F"1&E*'3E&9%*@3%E-&B%I"2&E3''13632'E-&]"11E-&
F"E'13E&"28&$':3%&;$%'*;*F"'*$2E=-&':3C&%3;13F'&':3&1$F"1&
and regional history of various social groups. This
M I L I T A R Y H I S T O R Y ! 123

4%>+B:3-=&8/>0-3&*:%&#$&0$2:.>#:*"&2&3#:3&I-%I-&
nadregionalni in mednarodni kontekst glede
na vlogo in pomen slovenskega ozemlja v sred-
njeveški zgodovini tega dela Evrope. Doslej ju
.&3:/"#&-.#:!"!-&3-8$&0$'1$B1#:3$&0%:>;:2"1-(&
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/%"#:2& -3& 3"0%"2L& /-& 8$& 2& 82:*>& 0$8:B:3& %".--
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=:$1$'-#$&-3&.'$4$2-3$L&0"&*>4-&30%(&=-8*$%-;3$&
':$'%"P-#$&-3&"3*%$0$1$'-#$(&
):*$4:&-3&0%-8*$0:L&8&/"*:%-!-&B$4$&*:&8*%$ke
v sodelovanju z naravoslovnimi vedami
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$4& 0$8"!:.3:'"& 0%-!:%/"& $%$+#"& 4$& 2$#"I/:&
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in razviti. Pri tem so materialni preostanki iz
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2:4:3#:&2&H:1$*-L&#:&4$/"#&0-;1"(&M42-83"&#:&$4&
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l/%"*-&-!"*"&$=%"3#:3$&8%:43#:2:I/$&$%$+#:&-3&
bojna oprema pomembno mesto v presoji na-
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4%>'";3$L&B$1#&$B#:/*-23$&-3&!"3#&8*:%:$*-03$&
2%:43$*:3#:&8%:43#:2:I/:&4:4-I;-3:&*:&2%8*:(
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3$& $0".$2"*-& -.& %".1-;3-=& .$%3-=& /$*$2L& 3:& 1:&
iz oblikovnega ali tipološko-kronološkega. S
/"/I3-!-&0$8*$0/-&-3&-.&/"/I3-=&83$2-&#:&B-1&-.delan
posamezen predmet ter kakšne so bile
3#:'$2:&1"8*3$8*-&-3&>0$%"B3$8*L&1"=/$&>'$*"2[
1#"!$& .& :/80:%-!:3*"13$& "%=:$1$'-#$& $.-%$ma
rekonstrukcijo predmetov 1 ter na podlagi
%".1-;3-=& 3"%"2$81$23$[*:=3-;3-=& "3"1-.& -3&
0%:8/>8$2(&X4:"13$&#:L&;:&8$&*-&8:8*"23-&4:1&-3&
3"4"1#:2"3#:&/$38:%2"*$%8/-=&0$8*$0/$2(&
Kot primer naj navedemo analize srednjeve-
I/-=&!:;:2&-.&B1#"3-H:L&/-&#-=&=%"3-&K"%$43-&
1 Y%"8/12'4)8*1=,-2")/14),$'/E%"21$/?%",W"@!."4)2$/)-%"?8,0."e20%V"Z%W%89"N8/+'-/&/(1,"
tekstilni oklepi, v: ;'.,&)%&) in tehnika, 59/6 (2008), str. 45–52; isti avtor, Rekonstrukcija
poznosrednjeveškega prešitega oklepa, v: Argo, 51/1 (2008), str. 29–39;
" ,4),"%&)289"vW+/$%&%"8/?$,1/"V/$/W'/E%"1$2D*1%",W"Z-*D$-%',=/9"&"Argo, 50/1 (2007),
??."A6QBL"h%)%(%"h/0/3/19"e/>'2$2E,-%"?24$,1%&/"48/+'-/&/(1/E%"(3,)%9"&f"U8E29"
50/2 (2007), pp. 105-112.
124 ! V O J A Š K A Z G O D O V I N A
history is linked by its broader transregional and
international context with regard to the role and significance
of the Slovenian territory in the medieval
:*E'$%C&$;&':*E&>"%'&$;&3.&j*':&"&;3]&3aF3>'*$2E-&
it has not so far been the subject of more in-depth
research. The same applies to the sites of military
F$2;1*F'E&"28&I"''13E-&%362"2'E&$;&6*1*'"%C&F"6>E&$%&
I3E*3O38&1$F"'*$2E&"28&E*3O3&83@*F3E-&]:*F:-&*2&$':3%&
F$B2'%*3E-&>$E3&6"#$%&%3E3"%F:&F:"1132O3E&'$&@"%*$BE&
3a>3%'&;*318E-&3E>3F*"11C&"%F:"3$1$OC&"28&:*E'$%C-&"E&
well as historical geography and anthropology.
N'*11-&N1$@32*"&:"E&'$&*832'*;C&"28&83@31$>&63':$8E&
and approaches that will be employed by these areas
$;&%3E3"%F:-&*2&F$$>3%"'*$2&]*':&2"'B%"1&EF*32F3E-&'$&
F$6>%3:32E*@31C&3@"1B"'3&':3&>%3E3%@38&E$B%F3E-&;%$6&
individual examples of arms to military structures
on the terrain and archaeological sites or regions.
b32F3-&6"'3%*"1&%362"2'E&*2&6BE3B6&F$113F'*$2E&"%3&
considered to be some of the most valuable sources
for determining the scope and quality achieved by
the current research results. Their integration into
':3&>%3E32'&638*3@*E'*F&%3E3"%F:&3;;$%'E-&EF:$$1&"28&
E'B8C& >%$O%"663E& "28& 6BE3B6& 3a:*I*'*$2E& "28-&
':BE-&*2&"&F$6>%3:32E*@3&B283%E'"28*2O&$;&:*E'$%*F"1&
facts is all rather limited. It depends on historical
F*%FB6E'"2F3E&*2&':3&>"E'-&':3&*2'3%3E'&"28&$%*32'"-
'*$2&$;&F$6>3'32'&;*318E&$;&%3E3"%F:-&*2E'*'B'*$2E&"28&
*28*@*8B"1E-&"E&]311&"E&$2&>"E'-&*83$1$O*F"11C&F$28*-
'*$238-&3@"1B"'*$2E&]:32&E'B8C*2O&':3&!*8813&/O3E-&
2$I*1*'C-&]"%&"28&6*1*'"%C&:*E'$%C.&N*6B1'"23$BE1C-&
the preserved medieval arms and armour are of particular
importance for examining further research
8*%3F'*$2E& "28& ':3& >$EE*I*1*'*3E& $;& "& 8*;;3%32'-& 6$%3&
objective and less stereotyped evaluation of this medieval
heritage.
The subject of arms and armour should be appropriately
studied from various points of view and not
only from a formal or typological and chronological
aspect. The procedures and materials that were
used for the manufacture of an individual object and
what its characteristics and practical use were can
be determined by employing experimental archaeo-
1$OC-&3E>3F*"11C&':3&%3F$2E'%BF'*$2&$;&$I#3F'E- 1 as well
as based on various scientific and technical analyses
"28&'3E'E.&W83"11C-&':3E3&E:$B18&I3&"&F$2E'*'B32'&>"%'&
or continuation of conservation procedures.
The analyses of the medieval swords found in
the Ljubljanica River and preserved at the Narodni
1 For the reconstruction of textile armour from the 15 th "=/')*8P9"=J."e20%V"Z%W%89"
Srednjeveški tekstilni oklepi, in: ;'.,&)%&)! '%! 1)0%'(#, 59/6 (2008), pp. 45–52;
same author, Rekonstrukcija poznosrednjeveškega prešitega oklepa, in: Argo, 51/1
_QRRSb9" ??." QA6KAL" 4%0/" %*)>289" vW+/$%&%" 8/?$,1/" V/$/W'/E%" 1$2D*1%" ,W" Z-*D$-%6
',=/9" ,'f" U8E29" !Rg@" _QRR:b9" ??." A6QBL" h%)%(%" h/0/3/19" e/>'2$2E,-%" ?24$,1%&/"
48/+'-/&/(1/E%"(3,)%9",'f"U8E29"!RgQ"_QRR:b9"??."@R!6@@Q."

O%$B3:&3"#4B:&$%$+#"&-3&B$#3:&$0%:!:L&A>8*-&'%"4&3"4&9'$%3#$&
.:#&
Kranj.
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0%:81-/"2:& !:;:2& -3& "3"1-."& /:!-#8/-=& :1:-
!:3*$2& /$2-3& .& !:*$4$& FOD& qCN& 8$& 0$8*"1-&
%>*-38/-& 4:1& $B%"23"2:& *:'"& $%$+#"L& 0$!:!-
B:3& ."& 0%:0$.3"2"3#:& 0$8"!:.3-=& 8:8*"23-=&
4:1$2&!:;"L&0$8:B3$&%$;"#3:'"&4:1"L&-3&4$1$-
;-*:2&%".1-;3-=&2%8*&/$2-3&$.-%$!"&.1-*-3L&30%(&
$/%"8#"L&.3"/$2&-3&3"0-8$2( V Opravljene so bile
I:& 3:/"*:%:& 4%>':& "3"1-.:L& 30%(& 2%8*& 1:8"L& -.&
/"*:%:'"& 8$& B-1:& -.4:1"3:& %$;"#3:& $B1$':L& ;:prav
so bili rezultati glede na kakovost vzor-
H:2& 70%:#& !$/:%& 1:8& #:& B-1& +:& 0$8>I:3?& 81"BI-&
$4& 0%-;"/$2"3-=( 3 & A$8:B:3& 0%-!:%& >80:I3-=&
"3"1-.&#:&B-1"&8-8*:!"*-;3"&$B%"23"2"&0*>#8/-=&
8$43-I/-=& -38-'3-#& -.& RS(& 8*$1:*#"L& /-& #-=& =%"3-&
Pokrajinski muzej Ptuj. Ob konserviranju in
4:13:!&%:8*"2%-%"3#>&8$43-I/:'"&!:;"&.&3$+[
nico in sodniške palice v laboratoriju NMS so
B-1:&0$1:'&"3"1-.&1:8"L&*/"3-3&-3&0"0-%#"&3"%:-
#:3:&"3"1-.:&8&80:/*%$!:*%-#$&qCNL&%:3*':38/$&
2 Analize EDS XRF (Energy Dispersion Spectroscopy, X-Ray-Fluorescence) je na
8/')E/'41/0" 4?/1)820/)8*" &"$%D28%)28,-*"hFN"2?8%&,$"Y28%'"F,$,i9"?8/4$,1%&/"W"
8/')E/'41,0," V%81," ?%" v'(),)*)" W%" 0/)%$'/" 12'4)8*1=,-/" &" Z-*D$-%',." 78,0." Y28%'"
F,$,i9"a%'%"u*D,="78,4$%'9"d?28%D%"8/')E/'41,>"V%812&"&"%8>/2$2E,-,",'"%8>/2$2(1,"
konservaciji, Argo, 40/2 (1997), str. 91–104.
K" U'%$,W/"-/"'%8/+,$"F%8),'"Y*?%'3,3"W"k++/$1%"W%"$/4%84)&2"'%";,2)/>',(1,"J%1*$)/),"
Univerze v Ljubljani.
N6"11&;*28*2OE&$;&"%6E&"28&"%6$B%-&HBE'*&O%8&"I$@3&?O$%2#"&
D*>2*F"&"'&`"8$@1#*F"-&QX th -16 th &F32'B%C-&,3>'&IC&7%"2#&6BE3B6.
6B+3#& N1$@32*#3& 9M"'*$2"1& !BE3B6& $;& N1$@32*"=&
E3%@3&"E&"2&3a"6>13.&W2&%3F32'&C3"%E-&sZ%"C&*6"O3E&
of swords and the analysis of the chemical elements
$;&63'"1E&36>1$C*2O&':3&-& "28&
determining the various types of metals and alloys
BE38& ;$%& $%2"632'E-& E*O2E& "28& *2EF%*>'*$2E. U & _':3%&
"2"1CE3E&]3%3&"1E$&F$28BF'38&h&;$%&3a"6>13-&"2"1Cses
of the types of wood used for manufacturing the
O%*>&F$"'*2O-&"1':$BO:&':3&%3EB1'E&]3%3&]$%E3&':"2&
expected due to the quality of samples (the previously
wet wood was already dry). 3 A particular example
of a successful technical analysis was the systematic
%3E3"%F:&*2'$&':3&*2E*O2*"E&$;&#BE'*F3&;%$6&H'B#-&$%*O*nating
from the 16 th &F32'B%C-&]:*F:&"%3&>%3E3%@38&"'&
':3&H$,%"#*2E,*&6B+3#&H'B#&9H'B#&`3O*$2"1&!BE3B6=.&
During the conservation and partial restoration of
the sword of justice and scabbard and the sceptre of
2 EDS XRF analyses (Energy Dispersion Spectroscopy, X-Ray-Fluorescence) were
carried out using the X-ray spectrometer at the lab of the National Museum of
N$2&/',%"DP"Y28%'"F,$,i9"s68%P",0%E/4"X/8/")%1/'"%)")>/"F/)%$"M2'4)8*=),2'"v'4),-
)*)/",'"Z-*D$-%'%."MJ."Y28%'"F,$,i9"a%'%"u*D,="78,4$%'9"d?28%D%"8/')E/'41,>"V%812&"&"
arheologiji in arheološki konservaciji, in: Argo, 40/2 (1997), pp. 91–104.
K" e>/"%'%$P4,4"X%4"=2'+*=)/+"DP"F%8),'"Y*?%'3,3"J820")>/"C22+"N=,/'=/"H/?%8)ment
of the Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana.
M I L I T A R Y H I S T O R Y ! 125
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-3&3:2*%$38/$&%"4-$'%"P-#$( 4 Te so med drugim
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.&'1"2-;:!( 5 &^:0%"2&0*>#8/-&!:;&/$*&73$2$2:-
I/"?&8$43-I/"&-38-'3-#"&3-&B-1&$%$+#:&2&0%"2:!&
0$!:3>& B:8:4:L& "!0"/& H:%:!$3-"13-& 0%:4-
!:*L& 8$& "3"1-.:& 0$/"."1:& 8!-8:13$8*& *"/I3-=&
0$8*$0/$2(&@&81$2:38/-&"%=:$1$'-#-&>0$%"B1#"#$&
I:&3:/"*:%:&4%>':&"%=:$!:*%-;3:&!:*$4:L&30%(&
AXqF& .& >0$%"B$& -$38/:'"& 0$80:I:2"13-/"& ."&
4$1$;"3#:&8:8*"2:&/$2-38/-=&.1-*-3(&9:1$&/$%-8*[
3:& B-& B-1:& I:& 3$2:& !:*$4:L& 0$8:B3$& *-8*:L& /-&
4$1$;-#$&1"8*3$8*-&0%:4!:*$2L&30%(&*%4$*$&%:.-1&
=1"43:'"&$%$+#"(&
A$1:'& 3:4:8*%>/*-23-=& 0$8*$0/$2& #:& *%:B"&
/1#>B&0%:2-43$8*-&'1:4:&80$!:3-I/$2"%8*2:3-=&
0%-3H-0$2&$=%"3#"3#"&!>.:"1-#&%:83$&>0$I*:2"-
*-&*>4-&!$+3$8*-&4:8*%>/*-23-=&!:*$4L&0$8:B3$&
!:*"1$'%"P8/-=L&/-&.&3"0%:4/$!&.3"3$8*-&."=tevajo
vse manjše vzorce gradiva. V Sloveniji
8$&$0%"2-1-&%".!:%$!"&!"1$&*"/I3-=&"3"1-.L&$4&
8%:43#:2:I/:'"&$%$+#"&2&K)D&1:&."&:3&$41$!:/&
%:.-1"&!:;"( 6 &@&*>#-3-&8$&!:*"1$'%"P8/:&"3"1-.:&
dosti bolj razširjene in pomembno prispevajo
tako k poznavanju mikrostrukture oziroma vr-
8*:&-3&/"/$2$8*-&/$2-3:&/$*&*>4-&/&%".1$;:2"3#>&
-.2-%3-=&0%:4!:*$2&$4&/$0-#&-3&0$3"%:4/$2( 7 V
82:*>&8-H:%&%".2-#"#$&%".1-;3:&.:1$&/$!01:/83:&
-3& *>4-& 4%"':& 3:4:8*%>/*-23:& !:*$4:L& 30%(&
3:2*%$38/$& 4-P%"/H-#$& /$*& 0$28:!& 3:-32".-2-
3$&!:*$4$&4$1$;"3#"&0$8"!:.3-=&.3";-13$8*-&
+:1:.3-=&"%*:P"/*$2( 8 &@&0%:>;:2"3#>&8%:43#:2:-
I/:'"&$%$+#"&-3&B$#3:&$0%:!:&8:&!$%"!$&."vzemati
za premišljeno uporabo metod ene in
4%>':&2%8*:L&8"#&28"/"&0$&82$#:&0$!"'"&%"./%--
2"*-&8/%-23$8*-&!"*:%-"1$2L&0$8*$0/$2&-.4:1"2:&
in lastnosti predmetov. W
T" h/&)82'412"8%+,2E8%J,8%'-/"0/3%"-/"&"/14?/8,0/')%$'/0"-/+841/0"8/%1)28-*"&"72+-
E28,=,"?8,"Z-*D$-%',",W&/+/$"+8."a2V/"/$L"F/)%$2E8%J41/"?8/,41%&/"8,041/E%"8/?*D$,1%'-
41/E%"282V-%",W"W%1$%+%"W"#8%+*"?8,"u0,>/$*9"&f"Arheološki vestnik, 55 (2004), str.
291–312.
:" 78,0."'?8."U$%'"C,$$,%049"The Knight and the Blast Furnace; A History of the Metallurgy
of Armour in the Middle Ages & the Early Modern Period, Leiden 2003. Dr.
Williams, sodelavec muzeja The Wallace Collection v Londonu, je imel 8. septembra
2008 kot gost NMS v Ljubljani predavanje z naslovom Metalografske analize
#%1'7%):#!'%!-2)$%&).):C& ]3%3&
F$28BF'38-&*2&"88*'*$2&'$&':3&"2"1CE3E&$;&]$$8-&'3atile
and paper. 4 &/6$2O&$':3%&;*28*2OE-&':3E3&"2"1CE3E&
revealed the inner structure of the sword’s grip and
the pommel. 5 Although the Ptuj sword as a (Modern
Period) symbol of justice was not a weapon in the
1*'3%"1& E32E3& IB'& "& F3%36$2*"1& $I#3F'-& ':3& %3EB1'E& $;&
the analyses justified the above-mentioned procedures.
Slovenian archaeology also employs other ar-
F:"3$63'%*F"1& %3E3"%F:& 63':$8E-& ;$%& 3a"6>13& HWs%$O%3EE&$;&EF*32F3-&%3dB*%3&
smaller samples of materials. These types of techni-
F"1&"2"1CE3E&]3%3&%"%31C&F$28BF'38&*2&N1$@32*".&_21C&
a fragment of a medieval sword blade preserved in
the National Museum of Slovenia was analysed using
this method. 6 & /I%$"8-& 63'"11$O%">:*F& "2"1CE3E&
are used more often and contribute significantly to
':3& F:"%"F'3%*E"'*$2& $;& ':3& 6*F%$E'%BF'B%3-& 3E>3-
F*"11C&':3&'C>3&"28&dB"1*'C&$;&':3&63'"1-&"E&]311&"E&
distinguishing between original objects and copies
or forgeries. 7 &W2&;$%3*O2&F$B2'%*3E-&@3%C&F$6>13a&"28&
expensive non-destructive methods have been devel-
$>38-& ;$%& 3a"6>13& 23B'%$2& 8*;;%"F'*$2& "E& "& '$'"11C&
T" h/*)82'"8%+,2E8%?>P"2J")>/"4X28+"X%4"=%88,/+"2*)"DP"a2V/",="cj%0,'%),2'4"2J")>/"/$L"F/)%$2E8%J41/"
?8/,41%&/" 8,041/E%" 8/?*D$,1%'41/E%" 282V-%" ,W" W%1$%+%" W" #8%+*" ?8," u0,>/$*9" ,'f"
Arheološki vestnik, 55 (2004), pp. 291–312.
7 Cf. for example, Alan Williams, The Knight and the Blast Furnace; A History of the
Metallurgy of Armour in the Middle Ages & the Early Modern Period, Leiden 2003.
Dr. Williams, a staff member of the museum The Wallace Collection in London,
was hosted by the National Museum of Slovenia on 8 September 2008 and gave a
lecture on the metallographic analyses of ancient and medieval weapons.

Zamejitev raziskovalnega polja v »srednji
vek« je zgolj konvencionalna in sledi uveljav-
ljenim kronološkim razmejitvam zgodovin-
8/-=& $B4$B-#L& 2& :2%$08/:!& 0%$8*$%>& 0$8:B3$&
8*"%:'"L&8%:43#:'"&-3&3$2:'"&2:/"(&A%$B1:!"-
*-;3"&1"=/$&0$8*"3:L&;:&$B&801$I3:!&3:&>0$števamo
posebnega zgodovinskega razvoja
0$8"!:.3-=& 8/>03$8*-& -3& 4%>+BL& $B& *:!& 0"&
*>4-&%".2$#"&$%$+#"&-3&B$#3:&$0%:!:(&MB&.'$4[
njesrednjeveškem gradivu je zato nujno pozna-
*-&-3&0%-!:%#"*-&*>4-&*-8*$&-.&0$.3:&"3*-/:L&$B&
poznosrednjeveškem tisto iz novega veka. 10 Pri
*:!&#:&28::3$L&"1-&8!$&>#:*-&!:4&1:*3-H-&YTT&-3&
RYTT&"1-&!$%4"&\kS&-3&R\WV&-3&."&!:#3-/:&#:![
1#:!$& Ä0%:1$!3:Å& 0$1-*-;3:& 4$'$4/:L& *%"#"3#:&
4-3"8*-#&-3&8!%*-&21"4"%#:2L&"1-&0"&>0$I*:2"!$&
4%>'";3:&%".4:1-*2:&-3&0$#!$2"3#"L&3"&0%-!:%&
$& m4$1':!& 8%:43#:!& 2:/>n& '1$B-3L& *:!:1#:2&
-3&8*%>/*>%&_&0$&P%"3H$8/:!&.'$4$2-3"%#>&& #:& *"& *%"#"1& $4& V(& "1-& e(& 8*$1:*#"& 3"I:'"&
štetja oziroma od poznega rimskega cesarstva
4$& -34>8*%-#8/:& %:2$1>H-#:& 7*$;3:#:& %:2$1>H-#?&
!:4&RW(&8*$1:*#:!&-3&8:4"3#$8*#$( 11
Skoraj nikoli ne obravnavamo tipsko izde-
1"3-=&0%:4!:*$2L&0$'$8*$&8$&*-&*>4-&1$/"13:'"&
-.2$%"L&."*$&#-=&3:&!$%:!$&0%:0%$8*$&8*1";-*-&2&
>2:1#"21#:3:&*-0$1$I/:&-3&/%$3$1$I/:&8=:!:&."&
evropski prostor. Vzemimo za primer le »dol-
':n& "1-& mB$#3:& 3$+:n& 72& 3:!I/-=& 2-%-=& m):8-
8:%n?&-3&m/!:;/:&3$+:nL&/-&8$&B-1-&'1:4:&3"&0-8[
3:&-3&1-/$23:&2-%:&.3";-13$&$%$+#:&3"#:!3-/$2&
-3&/!:*$2&2&RY(&-3&RS(&8*$1:*#>L&*$%:#&$B&/$3H>&
70$.3:'"?&8%:43#:'"&2:/"&$.-%$!"&3"&.";:*/>&
3$2:'"&2:/"(&A%:2-43$8*&0%-&4$1$;"3#>&I:&B$1#&
2:1#"&."&m/1"8-;3:n&8%:43#:2:I/:&!:;:L&/-&0$-
'$8*$& 4$B-#$& $.3"/$& m2-*:I/-nL& 3:& 4"& B-& ."3#:&
0$.3"1-&*-8*:&0$4"*/:&$&-.2$%>&"1-&3"#4-I;3:!&
/$3*:/8*>L&/-&B-&>0%"2-;:2"1-&3#-=$2$&0$2:."2$&
.&2-*:.-&/$*&0$8:B3$&4%>+B:3$&/"*:'$%-#$&$B$-
%$+:3H:2&2&8%:43#:2:I/-&4%>+B-(&A%"2&!$'$;:&
#:L&4"&8$&#-=&>0$%"B1#"1-&*>4-&0%-0"43-/-&4%>'-=&
4%>+B:3-=& 8/>0-3& "1-& 8*"3$2L& 30%(& !:I;"3-& -3&
H:1$&/1:%-/-L&;:&80$!3-!$&1:&3"&"%=-28/:&0$-
4"*/:& $& $B$%$+-*2-& 0-%"38/-=& !:I;"3$2& 2& Re(&
10" 78,0."12)"4$2&/'41,"?8/&2+")*-/E%"+/$%"F,824$%&"d$3%8"_*8.b9"=%>'(,39)$'&#!323/&#?!
@23/&)!-(3*'!-)$)A!1'-37,)1'&, Ljubljana 1995.
11 Jacques Le Goff, "#!$26:#7)%!-2)$%&'!.)(, Ljubljana 1985, str. 12.
non-invasive method for determining the individual
characteristics of iron artefacts. 8 In researching me-
8*3@"1&"%6E&"28&"%6$B%-&$23&:"E&'$&':$%$BO:1C&F$2-
E*83%&':3&@"%*$BE&'C>3E&$;&63':$8E&':"'&F"2&I3&BE38-&
as each – in its own way – reveals secrets of the mate-
%*"1E-&6"2B;"F'B%*2O&'3F:2*dB3E&"28&F:"%"F'3%*E'*FE&
of the objects. V
Limiting the research sphere to the “Middle Ages”
is a highly conventional approach and is based on
the established chronological division into histori-
F"1& >3%*$8EL& *2& ':3& 3"2& "%3"& 3E>3F*"11C-& ':3&
/2'*dB*'C-&':3&!*8813&/O3E&"28&':3&!$83%2&H3%*$8.&
It might be a problem when both the general and
specific historical development of individual groups
"28&E$F*3'*3E&*E&2$'&'",32&*2'$&"FF$B2'-&"E&]311&"E&':3&
83@31$>632'&$;&"%6E&"28&"%6$B%.&5:3%3;$%3-&]:32&
dealing with early medieval objects one should be
familiar with and make comparisons with objects
;%$6&':3&1"'3&/2'*dB*'C&"28-&E*6*1"%1C-&1"'3&638*3@"1&
objects with objects from modern times. 10 &g3'-&*'&*E&$;&
6*2$%&*6>$%'"2F3-&]:3':3%&]3&"%3&'%">>38&I3']332&
':3&C3"%E&XSS&"28&QXSS&$%&[mR&"28&Q[VU&$%&]:3':3%&
]3&F$2E*83%&83F*E*@3&>$1*'*F"1&3@32'E-&':3&8B%"'*$2&$;&
dynasties and the death of rulers as historic turn-
*2O&>$*2'E-&$%&]:3':3%&]3&BE3&8*;;3%32'&F1"EE*;*F"'*$2E&
"28&F$2F3>'E&h&;$%&3a"6>13-&':3&Ñ1$2O&!*8813&/O3Ez&$;&
>%$;B28*'*3E-&;$B28"'*$2E&"28&E'%BF'B%3E.&/FF$%8*2O&
'$&':3&P%32F:&:*E'$%*"2&D3&K$;;-&*'&1"E'38&;%$6&':3&U nd
or the 3 rd century in the Christian era or from the
late Roman Empire up to the industrial revolution
96$%3&"FFB%"'31C&%3@$1B'*$2E=&;%$6&':3&QV th century
until now. 11
Typologically manufactured objects are hardly
ever dealt with. Such objects are often of local ori-
O*2& "28& F"2-& ':3%3;$%3-& 2$'& I3& >1"F38& *2'$& 3E'"Ilished
typological and chronological schemes for the
European area. Let’s take for example the “singleedged
weapons” (referred to in German sources as
Messer) and the so called “Bauernwehr” (peasant’s
,2*@3E=-&]:*F:&]3%3-&"FF$%8*2O&'$&]%*''32&8$FB632'E&
"28&]$%,E&$;&"%'-&'C>*F"1&]3">$2E&BE38&IC&63%F32"%ies
and peasants in the 15 th and the 16 th centuries
– that is by the end of the (Late) Middle Ages and
the beginning of the Modern Period. Identification
8 Cf. the Internet article by S. Imberti et al., Neutron Diffractometer INES for Quan-
),)%),&/"7>%4/"U'%$P4,4"2J"U8=>%/2$2E,=%$"kD-/=)49",'f"Measurement Science and
Technology, 19 (2008), 034003 (p. 8).
9 A good presentation of the situation, problems and perspectives of such types of
research was offered by the international conference Early Iron in Europe; Prehistoric,
Roman and Medieval Iron Production in Hüttenberg in Carinthia, Austria, 8
to 12 September 2008.
10" MJ.")>/"N$2&/',%'")8%'4$%),2'"2J")>/")8/%),4/"DP"F,824$%&"d$3%8"_/+.b9"c'=,1$2?/+,-%"
282V-%L"k82V-/"412W,"4/+/0"),423$/),-9"Z-*D$-%'%"@AA!.
11 Jacques Le Goff, "#!$26:#7)%!-2)$%&'!.)(, Ljubljana 1985, p. 12 (Slovenian translation
from: J. Le Goff, Pour un autre moyen age9"7%8,4"@AATb.
M I L I T A R Y H I S T O R Y ! 127

):;-&-.&8*%>':&B1#"3-H:L&R\(&8*$1:*#:_.";:*:/&RY(&8*$1:*#"L&
=%"3-&K"%$43-&!>.:#&D1$2:3-#:
in 14. stoletju ali konkretno navedbo o obo-
%$+-*2-& P%:-8-3I/:'"& I/$P"& 2& 3#:'$2-& %:.-4:3H-&
3"&*"/%"*3:!&I/$P#:1$I/:!&'%"4>J&-32:3*"%3-&
."0-8& -.& 1:*"& ReVR& $!:3#"& !:;& I/$P$2:& B$#3:&
opreme (O1"8*B6&"8&"%6"&T8$6*2*T?&2&I/$P$vi
sobi. RV V piranski komuni so prebivalci po-
1:'&!:;"&7spadaL&ensis) poznali še druge vrste
$%$+#"&$.-%$!"&B$#3:&$0%:!:J&%".1-;3:&$/1:0:&
(coraçiaL& lamera?L& *%:B>I3-& $/1:0& 7pançeria?L&
prsni oklep (coretus?L&$2%"*3-&$/1:0&7golarum?L&
oklep za roke (braçale?L&$/1:0&."&3$':&7gambera?L&;:1"4$&7capelusL&capilina?L&I;-*&7clipidusL&
talavaçus?L& $/%$'1-& I;-*& 7targiaL& rotella?L& /$0#:&
(lançonus?L& 8%0"8*$& /$0#:& 7ronchonus?L& $/$2"-
3$&'$%#";$&7spontonus?L&3$+&7lançetaL&penatum)
in samostrel (balista) z napenjalnikom (crochus?&_&/"%&$B8:+:3&"%.:3"1L&;:0%"2&.3"3&1:&0$&
$!:!B"=( 13 &A%"2&3-;:8"%&$4&*"/I3:'"&8%:43#:-
2:I/:'"&$%$+#"&-3&B$#3:&$0%:!:&4$81:#&3-8$&3"-
I1-& 3:& 2& A-%"3>& 3:& 2& 4%>'-=& 42:=& 0%-!$%8/-=&
/$!>3"=&3"&81$2:38/-&$B"1-L&*$&#:&2&6$0%>&-3&
X.$1-L&;:&8$4-!$&0$&!>.:#8/-=&%".8*"2"=&-3&$B-
#"2"=(&
6"/I3:&8$&%".!:%:&2&D1$2:3-#-L&/"%&."4:2"&
12 Joseph Zahn, Codex diplomaticus Austriaco-Frisingensis, III; Fontes rerum Austriacarum,
Oesterreichische Geschichts-Quellen, XXXVI, Wien 1871, str. 146/39.
13" H%8-%"F,>/$,39"Neagrarno gospodarstvo Pirana od 1280 do 1340; Dela 1. razreda
SAZU, 279"Z-*D$-%'%"@AS!9"4)8."ST"4$."N$2&/'41,",W8%W,"42"'%&/+/',"?2"F,>/$,3/&,",'"
-,>")*"18,),3'2"'/"2D8%&'%&%02."78,0."?%"e20%V"h%D/8E2-9"5%D/')"4*%"J%)%"E$%+,,9"
>%D/')"4*%"J%)%"%80%yL"78,4?/&/1"1",W8%W-*"W%"282V-/",'"D2-'2"2?8/02"&"48/+'-/&/ških
pisnih virih za slovenski prostor, v: Kronika, 49/1–2 (2001), str. 5–6, 17–18
(posebno za izraz runconus).
128 ! V O J A Š K A Z G O D O V I N A
N]$%8E&;%$6&%*@3%I38&$;&D#BI1#"2*F"-&Q[ th century-beginning of
15 th &F32'B%C-&,3>'&IC&M"'*$2"1&6BE3B6&$;&N1$@32*"
should be even more cautious for classic medieval
E]$%8E-&]:*F:&"%3&BEB"11C&1"I31138&"E&,2*O:'1C&]*':-
$B'&3@32&,2$]*2O&*2;$%6"'*$2&$2&':3*%&$%*O*2-&$%&':3&
context of the archaeological site that could justify
their connection with knights as a special social category
of armed individuals in medieval society. Such
swords were equally used by members of other social
O%$B>E&$%&F1"EE3E-&;$%&*2E'"2F3&'$]2E632&$%&F13%OC-
632-&*;&]3&%3F"11&"%F:*@3&*2;$%6"'*$2&$2&':3&]3">$2E&
of the townsmen of Piran in the 13 th and the 14 th centuries
or the factual reference on the weapons of the
Bishop of Freising in his residence in the Škofja Loka
(Bischoflack) castle: an inventory list dating from
QcUQ&632'*$2E&"&E]$%8&':"'&]"E&>"%'&$;&':3&I*E:$>fE&
"%6E& 9O1"8*B6& "8& "%6"& T8$6*2*T=& *2& ':3& I*E:$>fE&
room. QU The inhabitants of the Piran municipality
also knew other types of arms and armour along
]*':& ':3& E]$%8& 9E>"8"-& 32E*E=L& @"%*$BE& "%6$B%E&
9F$%"~*"-&1"63%"=-&@"%*$BE&F$"'E&$;&>1"'3E&9>"2~3%*"-&
F$%3'BE=-&F$11"%E&9O$1"%B6=-&@"6I%"F3E&9I%"~"13=-&13O&
:"%23EE3E& 9O"6I3%"=-& :3163'E& 9F">31BE-& F">*1*2"=-&
E:*318E&9F1*>*8BE-&'"1"@"~BE=-&'"%O3'E&9'"%O*"-&%$'311"=-&
1"2F3E& 91"2~$2BE=-& %"]F$2E& 9Ñ%B2,"z=& 9%$2F:$2BE=-&
E>*,38&F1BIE&9E>$2'$2BE=-&,2*@3E&91"2~3'"-&>32"'B6=&
12 Joseph Zahn, Codex diplomaticus Austriaco-Frisingensis, III; Fontes rerum Austriacarum,
Oesterreichische Geschichts-Quellen, XXXVI, Wien 1871, p. 146/39.
N$*$UPhotoJ&5$!"+&

$=%"3#:3$&$%$+#:&-3&B$#3$&$0%:!$&-.&8%:43#:'"&
2:/"&*:%&2:4:3#:&$&3#-#>&-.&4%>'-=L&0-83-=&-3&1--
/$23-=&2-%$2~&A%:8$#"!$&'"&1"=/$&3"#0%:#&I-%I:J&
v veliki meri je odvisno od splošne razvitosti in
>8!:%-*:2&0$8"!:.3-=&8*%$/L&/-&8:&1$*:2"#$&!:-
4-:2-8*-/:L&2&0%2-&2%8*-&"%=:$1$'-#:L&.'$4$2-3:L&
>!:*3$8*3:& -3& 8*"2B3:& .'$4$2-3:L& =-8*$%-;3:&
':$'%"P-#:(&C:83-H-&3"&1#>B$&8$&8:&*:&2:4:&4$81:#&
%".!:%$!"&!"1$&>/2"%#"1:&.&$%$+#:!&-3&B$#3$&
$0%:!$L&>*%4B:3$&"%=-*:/*>%$&*:%&2$#3$&-3&2$-
#"I/$&.'$4$2-3$L&0%:428:!&0"&*:'"&3-8$&0$;:1:&
celostno niti ne povezano oziroma interdisci-
01-3"%3$(&i1:4:&3"&-.#:!:3&0$!:3&3"2:4:3-=&
*:!&."&0$1-*-;3$L&'$80$4"%8/$L&/>1*>%3$&-3&I:&
/"/I3$&.'$4$2-3$&0$8"!:.3-=&4%>+B&-3&/>1*>%&
"1-&/"%&H-2-1-."H-#&$4&0%".'$4$2-38/-=&4$B&3"-
0%:#&#:&B-1$&*"/I3-=&%".-8/"2&'$*$2$&0%:!"1$&-3&
niso dovolj sledile razvoju v tujini.
Q:&3"#B$1#&8$&2:%#:*3$&0%:>;-1-&'%"#8/$&"%=-tekturo
(to so storili umetnostni zgodovinar-
#-& -3& "%=-*:/*-& $.-%$!"& /"8*:1$1$'-?L 14 & ;:0%"2&
zaradi razmeroma pogoste prezidanosti in
81"B:& $=%"3#:3$8*-L& 0$8:B3$& 3$*%"3#I;-3L& 1:& .&
3:/"*:%-=&'1:4-I;L&3:&0"&30%(&.&2-4-/"&$B1:'$-
2"13-=&3"0%"2&-3&$B%"!B:&0%:4&3#-!-&/$*&4:1"&
strateško nadzorovanega oziroma branjenega
0%$8*$%"(& A%:!-/& 3"& *:!& 0$4%$;#>& 0$!:3-#$&
*%-& !$3$'%"P-#:& X2"3"& D*$0"%#"L& 8-H:%& 3"I:'"&
3"#B$1#& >2:1#"21#:3:'"& /"8*:1$1$'"L& $& +-21#:3#>&
3"& 8%:43#:2:I/-=& '%"4$2-=& 3"& D1$2:38/:!( 15
Ob grajski je delno raziskana še druga utrdbe-
3"&"%=-*:/*>%"L&30%(&!:8*3"&$B.-4#"&-3&8*$10-(&
A$8:B:#& $!:3-!$& 0%$*-*>%I/:& *"B$%:L& /"*:%-=&
!%:+"&#:&$B&/$3H>&8%:43#:'"&-3&2&.";:*/>&3$-
2:'"& 2:/"& $B8:'"1"& 0%-B1-+3$& eYT& 4$& \TT& *"-
B$%8/-=& >*%4BL& 2/1#>;3$& .& >*%#:3-!-& #"!"!-&
0$4&.:!1#$L&8*$10-&-3&42-+3-!-&!$8*$2-&*:%&."pornimi
obzidji. To je res veliko v primerjavi
8&0%-B1-+3$&WTT&'%"4$2-L&'%"I;-3"!-L&42$%H-&-3&
42$%-&%".1-;3-=&P:24"13-=&'$80$4$2L&/-&8$&3"stali
na našem ozemlju od 10. stoletja vse do
3$2:'"&2:/"(&9:1$&0$!:!B3$&-3&0$.-*-23$&#:L&
4"&8*"&8:&2&."43#:!&;"8>&0$2:;"1"&8/%B&-3&."-
3-!"3#:&4%+"2:&."&0%:3$2$&-3&$+-2-*:2&*:&2%8*:&
14" 78,0."?8,4?/&/1"vE28-%"N%?%3%"&")/0"WD28',1*.
15 Ivan Stopar, Svet viteštva, Ljubljana 2005; isti avtor, @-12#! (39&#4! B2'$('! A)7',
Ljubljana 2006; isti avtor, Za grajskimi zidovi9"Z-*D$-%'%"QRR:9"&4/"&"WD,81,"W%$2VD/"
Viharnik ;'.,&)%&)!%#!-2)$%&).)*3F3&$;&':3E3&638*3-
@"1&"%6E&"28&"%6$B%&:"@3&I332&;$B28&E$&;"%-&23*':3%&
*2&H*%"2-&2$%&*2&':3&$':3%&']$&6B2*F*>"1*'*3E&*2&':3&
N1$@32*"2&D*''$%"1&h&7$>3%&"28&W+$1".&
What is the situation in Slovenia regarding the
preservation of arms and armour originating from
the Middle Ages and what can we learn about them
;%$6& $':3%-& ]%*''32& 8$FB632'E& "28& ]$%,E& $;& "%'Ä&
P*%E'-&]3&F"2&3@"1B"'3&':*E&E*'B"'*$2&*2&"&]*83%&>3%-
E>3F'*@3L&*'&83>328E-&'$&"&O%3"'&3a'32'-&$2&':3&O323%"1&
development and the orientation of individual fields
of medievistic research – predominantly archaeol-
$OC-&:*E'$%C-&':3&:*E'$%C&$;&;*23&"%'E&"28&"%F:*'3F'B%3&
"28&:*E'$%*F"1&O3$O%">:C.&W2&>$*2'&$;&;"F'-&':3E3&EF*ences
have joined together – to a limited extent – in
':3&%3E3"%F:&$;&"%6E&"28&"%6$B%-&;$%'*;*F"'*$2&"%F:*tecture
and war and military history – but notably
*2&23*':3%&"&F$6>%3:32E*@3-&2$%&*2'3O%"'38&*2'3%8*Eciplinary
manner. Considering the great significance
':"'& ':3E3& EBI#3F'E& :"8& '$& ':3& >$1*'*F"1-& 3F$2$6*F-&
cultural and other spheres of history in individual
societies and cultures or even civilisations from the
>%3:*E'$%*F&"O3&$2]"%8E-&':*E&"%3"&:"E&2$'&B283%O$23&
"&E"'*E;"F'$%C&EF$>3&$;&%3E3"%F:-&]:*F:&:"E&"1E$&2$'&
followed the development of this research field in
other countries.
Castle architecture is probably the most studied
area in this context (from the aspect of art histo-
%*"2E& "28& "%F:*'3F'E-& >"%'*FB1"%1C& F"E'311$1$O*E'E=. 14
/1':$BO:-&"E&"&F$2E3dB32F3&$;&':3&%31"'*@31C&;%3dB32'&
reconstruction and poorly executed conservation
]$%,E& $;& F"E'13E-& 93E>3F*"11C& *223%& %$$6E=-& *'& F$B18&
only be researched from certain points of view and
2$'-&;$%&3a"6>13-&;%$6&':3&"E>3F'&$;&E*3O3&]3">$2E&
and the defence against these as a part of a strategically
controlled and defended area. A change in this
area was made by the three monographs on the life
of medieval castles in the Slovenian area written by
W@"2&N'$>"%-&':3&6$E'&>%$6*232'&N1$@32*"2&F"E'311$1ogist.
15 &/1$2O&]*':&F"E'13&"%F:*'3F'B%3-&':3&"%F:*'3F-
'B%3&$;&;$%'*;*F"'*$2E-&EBF:&"E&F*'C&]"11E&"28&'$]3%E-&
has also been partly researched. Particular attention
13" H%8-%"F,>/$,39"Neagrarno gospodarstvo Pirana od 1280 do 1340; Dela 1. razreda
SAZU, 27, Ljubljana 1985, p. 84 ss. The Slovenian expressions are stated accord-
,'E")2"F,>/$,3"%'+"%8/"'2)"+,4=*44/+"%)")>,4"?2,')."MJ."e20%V"h%D/8E2-9"5%D/')"4*%"
J%)%"E$%+,,9">%D/')"4*%"J%)%"%80%yL"78,4?/&/1"1",W8%W-*"W%"282V-/",'"D2-'2"2?8/02"
v srednjeveških pisnih virih za slovenski prostor, in: Kronika, 49/1–2 (2001), pp.
5–6, 17–18 (in particular the term runconus).
14" MJ."%8),=$/"DP"vE28"N%?%3",'")>,4"D*$$/),'."
15 Ivan Stopar, Svet viteštva, Ljubljana 2005; same author, @-12#!(39&#4!B2'$('!A)7',
Ljubljana 2006; same author, Za grajskimi zidovi, Ljubljana 2007, all part of the
same set of books ;'.,&)%&)!%#!-2)$%&).)

h:1:.3-&/1$B>/L&B$#3-&3$+L&B$#3"&$8*&-3&0"83"&80$3"L&3"#4:3-&2&
B1#"3-H-L&RY(&8*$1:*#:&$.(&/$3:H&Re(&8*$1:*#"_0%2"&0$1$2-H"&RY(&
8*$1:*#"&70"83"&80$3"?L&=%"3-&K"%$43-&!>.:#&D1$2:3-#:
4:4-I;-3:&'%"4$2L&>*%4B&-3&!:8*3-=&$B.-4-#L&/$*&
8$&0$/"."1:&0%-%:4-*2:&$B&43:2-=&:2%$08/:&/>1-
*>%3:&4:4-I;-3:&8:0*:!B%"&VTTS( 16
@& !-3>1-=& 0:*3"#8*-=& "1-& 42"#8:*-=& 1:*-=& #:&
bilo med mlajšimi generacijami zgodovinar-
#:2& 0%"2& *"/$& 2:;& ."3-!"3#"& -3& $0%"21#:3-=&
%".-8/"2L& 0$8:B3$& $& 4$81:#& B$1#& ."3:!"%#:3-=&
*:!"=L& /$*& #:& .'$4$2-3"& 01:!8*2"L& 8& *:!& 0"&
*>4-& 2$#3L& 2$#"I*2"& -3& 2:I;-3& 2$#8/$2"3#"L& $4&
16 Gradovi, utrdbe in mestna obzidja, Program prireditev; Dnevi evropske kulturne
$)$'*3EE&"28&I31'&IBF,13-&;$B28&*2&D#BI1#"2*F"-&
15 th century or end of 13 th century- first half of 15 th century (belt
IBF,13=-&,3>'&IC&M"'*$2"1&6BE3B6&$;&N1$@32*"
E:$B18&I3&>"*8&'$&':3&"2'*Z_''$6"2&F"6>E&':"'&]3%3&
integrated in a network of around 350 to 400 fortifi-
F"'*$2E-&*2F1B8*2O&;$%'*;*38&B283%O%$B28&F"@3E-&'$]-
3%E& "28& 8%"]I%*8O3E-& "E& ]311& "E& ;$%'*;*F"'*$2& ]"11E&
by the end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of
the modern times. This is a considerable number
*28338&*2&F$6>"%*E$2&]*':&':3&"%$B28&VSS&F"E'13E-&
6"2$%E-&6"2E*$2E&"28&F$B%'E&$;&@"%*$BE&;3B8"1&1$%8E&
that were built on Slovenian territory from the 10 th
N$*$UPhotoJ&5$!"+&

viteštva do najemništva. 17 Obravnavali so še
2-*:I/:& %:4$2:L& /%-+"%8/:& 2$#3:& -3& *>%3-%#:L&
mobilnost in komunikacije v okviru vojsko-
2"3#"&$.-%$!"&2$#3-=&0$=$4$2&/$*&8:8*"23:'"&
dela srednjeveškega prometa. 18 & MB8:+3:#I-=&
!$3$'%"P8/-=& 0%:'1:4$2& $& 2$#"I/-& .'$4$2-3-&
in organiziranosti v srednjem veku še nima-
!$L& %".:3& 4:13$& I*>4-#:& $& 2$#"I/-& $%'"3-.-ranosti
na Slovenskem v 16. stoletju. RW Ta v
okviru vojaške in obrambne organiziranosti
2& $B4$B#>& 3"#!$;3:#I-=& *>%I/-=& 20"4$2& !:4&
4%>'-!&$B%"23"2"&$B$%$+-*:2L&/-&8$&#$&0%:40--
8$2"1-& $B%"!B3-& %:4-& ."& /!:;/-& 20$/1-H& 0:I[
H:2&$4&0%2:&0$1$2-H:&RY(&8*$1:*#"&3"0%:#L&*-8*$L&
/-&8$&#$&-!:1-&3"#:!3-/-&7/$3#:3-/-&-3&0:IH-?L&
-3&*-8*$L&/-&#$&#:&0%:!$'1"&01:!-I/"&/$3#:3-H"(
E%=:$1$I/-=& %".-8/"2& 8%:43#:2:I/:'"& $%$+-
#"& -3& B$#3:& $0%:!:& 8/$%"#& 3-L& /"%& 2:1#"& H:1$&
za osnovne tipološke in kronološke preglede
gradiva. To je med drugim posledica dolgolet-
nega& 3:8-8*:!"*-;3:'"& -3& *%"4-H-$3"13$& 3:-
80%:#:*:'"&>/2"%#"3#"&"%=:$1$'$2&.&$B4$B#-&0$&
zgodnjem srednjem veku oziroma po 11. stolet-
ju – predvsem zaradi takrat veljavne delitve
0%:*:/1$8*-& 3"& m"%=:$1$I/"n& 70%".'$4$2-3"L&
%-!8/"&4$B"L&.'$43#-&8%:43#-&2:/?&-3&0$.3:#I"&
m3:"%=:$1$I/"n&$B4$B#"(&C".-8/$2"3#:&4%>'-=&
#:& "%=:$1$'-#"& 0%:0>I;"1"& 4%>'-!& 8*%$/"!L&
0%:428:!& .'$4$2-3-L& >!:*3$8*3-& .'$4$2-3-&
-3&:*3$1$'-#-(&5"/$&'%"4$2&-3&4%>'-=&>*%4B&"1-&
30%(&!:8*3-=&$B.-4-#&%".:3&%:4/-=&-.#:!&3-&%".-
-8/$2"1"&3";%*3$&-3&H:1$8*3$L&"!0"/&1:&2&$/2--
%>& 80$!:3-I/$2"%8*2:3-=& %".-8/"2L& 0%"2& *"/$&
8:&0$&2:;-3-&3-&>/2"%#"1"&.&!"*:%-"13$&/>1*>%$&
28"/4"3#:'"& +-21#:3#"(& C".!:%:& 8$& 8:& .";:1:&
80%:!-3#"*-&I:1:&2&."43#:!&4:8:*1:*#>&VT(&8*$letja
z razvojem stroke in novimi raziskavami
17" h?8."F%-%"q&%'*)9"Od viteza do gospoda9"Z-*D$-%'%"@AATL"7/)/8"u),>9"Goriški grofje
ter njihovi ministeriali in militi v Istri in na Kranjskem; Razprave Filozofske fakultete,
Ljubljana 1994; isti avtor, Celjski grofje – še vedno raziskovalni problem?,
v: Zbornik mednarodnega simpozija Grofje Celjski, stara tema – nova spoznanja
(ur. Rolanda Fugger Germadnik), Celje 1999, str. 11–22; isti avtor, Srednjeveško
plemstvo in slovensko zgodovinopisje, v: Melikov zbornik; Slovenci v zgodovini
in njihovi srednjeevropski sosedje (ur. Vincenc Rajšp idr.), Ljubljana 2001, str.
B@O:QL"H*(%'"G249"7%0/)"?2+"($/0209"W&/4)2D%"+/'%8-*L"7$/0,(1,"1%8,/8,W/0"&"
$*3,"*8%+2&%'-%9"4$*V/'-%",'"&2-412&%'-%"&"?2W'/0"48/+'-/0"&/1*9"&f"8#-39'-!*#!
zgodovino in narodopisje9"BBgQ"_@AA!b9"4)8."QR:OQK!L"F,>%"78/,'J%$19"Auerspergi,
53! -,)$)0! A3:37%):#! 162#; Thesaurus memoriae, Dissertationes, 4, Ljubljana
2005; Andrej Komac, @$!A)&%)!:23E'&)!$3!$)/),)4!F,2'(!GGGD!C9#%0)'A!'%!H2#%&-(#!.!
13. stoletju; Thesaurus memoriae, Dissertationes 5, Ljubljana 2006.
18 Dušan Kos, I62%'2-(#! (%&':#! J#'36I3%&USSR. 16
W2&':3&1"E'&;*;'332&$%&']32'C&C3"%E-&C$B2O3%&O32erations
of historians dedicated more interest and
%3E3"%F:&'$&>%3@*$BE1C&6$%3&23O13F'38&EBI#3F'E-&EBF:&
"E&':3&:*E'$%C&$;&':3&2$I*1*'C&"28-&':BE-&':3&:*E'$%C&$;&
]"%E-&':3&6*1*'"%C&$%O"2*E"'*$2&"28&]"%;"%3&E,*11E-&
from knighthood to mercenary soldiers. 17 They also
8*EFBEE38&':3&$%83%E&$;&,2*O:'E-&F%BE"83E&"28&'$B%2"-
632'E-&6$I*1*'C&"28&F$66B2*F"'*$2&*2&':3&F$2'3a'&
of warfare or military campaigns as part of medieval
traffic. 18 There are no detailed monographic
overviews of military history and organisation in the
!*8813&/O3E-&]*':&':3&3aF3>'*$2&$;&"&E'B8C&$2&6*1*tary
organisation in the Slovenian territory in the
16 th century. QV In the context of military and defence
organisation during the period of the most fierce
_''$6"2&%"*8E-&':*E&E'B8C&83"1E&"1E$&]*':&]3">$2E&
provided – by defence orders – for peasant infantry
soldiers from the 15 th & F32'B%C& $2]"%8-& "E& ]311& "E&
weapons that mercenary soldiers (cavalry and infantry
soldiers) had and those used by members of the
noble cavalry.
The archaeological research into medieval arms
"28&"%6$B%-&"1E$&*2F1B8*2O&'C>$1$O*F"1&"28&F:%$2$-
1$O*F"1& EB%@3CE& $;& 6"'3%*"1-& *E& "16$E'& 2$23a*E'32'.&
/6$2O& $':3%& %3"E$2E-& ':*E& *E& ':3& F$2E3dB32F3& $;& "&
long-lasting non-systematic and traditionally unaccepted
engagement of archaeologists with the periods
after the Early Middle Ages – specifically after the
11 th &F32'B%C-&2$'"I1C&8B3&'$&':3&;$%63%1C&">>1*38&8*-
@*E*$2&$;&':3&>"E'&*2'$&Ñ"%F:"3$1$O*F"1z&9>%3:*E'$%C-&
16 Gradovi, utrdbe in mestna obzidja, Program prireditev; Dnevi evropske kulturne
$)$'

*:%&2.0$8*"2-*2-#$&>8*%:.3-=&I*>4-#8/-=&0%$'%"mov
na Univerzi v Ljubljani. VT
9"*$& 3:& ;>4-L& 4"& $!:3#:3:& 8*%$/:& 4$81:#&
0%"/*-;3$& 3-8$& 0$8:'"1:& 3"& !:#3"& 0$4%$;#"&
%".-8/"2&-3&4"&I:1:&2&."43#-=&1:*-=&>2"#"#$&-3-
*:%4-8H-01-3"%3:& 0%-8*$0:L& 2/1#>;3$& 8& 8$4:1$-
2"3#:!& 3"%"2$81$23-=& 8*%$/(& M%$+#:& -3& B$#3"&
$0%:!"& 3"& 8%:43#:2:I/-=& P%:8/"=& -3& 4%>'-=&
1-/$23-=& >0$4$B-*2"=L& 0$8:B3$& 3"'%$B3-/-=L&
30%(&I:&;"/"*"&3"&*:!:1#-*$&$B%"23"2$L&;:0%"2&
8*"&+:&2.B>4-1"&."3-!"3#:( VR &E%=:$1$'-&B-&1"=-
/$& .& ':$P-.-/"13-!-& !:%-*2"!-& -3& 8-8*:!"*-;nimi
terenskimi pregledi ter tudi izkopavanji
%".-8/$2"1-&0%-.$%-I;:&/"/:&8%:43#:2:I/:&B-*/:&
"1-&1$/"H-#:&-3&0%:$8*"3/:&$B1:'$2"13-=&3"0%"2&
oziroma sledi bojev v okolici izbranega sred-
3#:2:I/:'"& '%"4>& 7;:& 3:& $!:3#"!$& !$%:B-*[
3:'"& "3*%$0$1$I/:'"& '%"4-2"L& /-& !>& 8$4$B3:&
P$%:3.-;3:& %".-8/"2:& >80:#$& -.*%'"*-& !"%8-/"tero
skrivnost). VV Tako bi morda pridobili nove
0$4"*/:& *>4-& ."& .'$4$2-3$& $B1:'$2"13-=& 3"-
0%"2&-3&8*%:13:'"&$%$+#"&$4&0$.3:'"&8%:43#:'"&
veka naprej. Te teme prav tako opozarjajo na
3$2:&0%-8*$0:L&/$*&#:&:/80:%-!:3*"13"&"%=:$1$-
'-#"L&/-&0$&.'1:4-=&-.&4%>'-=&4%+"2L&30%(&@:1-/:&
,%-*"3-#:L&O"38/:&"1-&K:!;-#:L&1"=/$&0%-3:8:#$&
3$2"&80$.3"3#"L&=/%"*-&0"&8&0%-/".-L&%".8*"2"-
!-&-3&*:!"*8/-!-&!>.:#8/-!-&0"%/-&0%-B1-+"#$&
8%:43#:2:I/$&4:4-I;-3$&#"23$8*-L&0%:428:!&*--
8*-L& /-& 8-& +:1-& 4:#"23$& 8$4:1$2"*-& 0%-& *"/I3:!&
80$.3"2"3#>& -3& $+-21#"3#>& 0%:*:/1$8*-(& 64"#&
bomo torej zgradili kak pravi srednjeveški ka-
*"0>1*L&!$%4"&3"&0$41"'-&3"#4B&"1-&28"#&$!:!B&
-.&0-83-=&2-%$2&."&81$2:38/-&0%$8*$%L&-3&'"&0%:skusili?
c%:#:3$8*L&0$.3"2"3#:&-3&0%:>;:3$8*&$%$+#"&
-3&B$#3:&$0%:!:&2&81$2:38/-=&#"23-=&.B-%/"=&#:&
!$'$;:& /%"*/$& $H:3-*-& +:& 3"& 0$41"'-& 0%:'1:-
4"&8*%$/$23:&!>.:#8/:&1-*:%"*>%:&-3&80%:=$4"&
0$& !>.:#8/-=& %".8*"2"=(& c'$*$2-!$L& 4"& 8:& #:&
20 Za pregled arheoloških raziskav visokega in poznega srednjega veka ter kratko
D,D$,2E8%J,-2"48/+'-/&/(1,>"'%-+,(39")*+,"'?8."E8%+2&9"E$/-"e20%V"h%D/8E2-9 Arheologija
in gotika, v: Gotika v Sloveniji – svet predmetov9"_*8."F%-%"Z2W%8"u)%0=%89"
h%82+',"0*W/-"N$2&/',-/9"8."1.b9"Z-*D$-%'%"@AA!9"4)8.":O@R:."78,0.")*+,"D$21"3$%'12&"
2"m?248/+'-/&/(1,>n"%8>/2$2E,-%>"&"N$2&/',-,"&"8/&,-,"Arheo, 25 (2008), str. 79–112,
?24/D'2"G%)%8,'%"78/+2&',19"h2&%"2DW28-%f"%8>/2$2E,-%"0$%-(,>"2D+2D,-9"?8%&")%09"
4)8."S@OSS9",'"e20%V"h%D/8E2-9"F*W/-,",'"%8>/2$2E,-%"2D+2D,-"?2"WE2+'-/0"48/+'-/0"
veku, prav tam, str. 89–96.
21" e20%V"Z%W%89"Z,12&',"&,8,"W%"&2-%(12"WE2+2&,'2"48/+'-/E%"&/1%L"N)/'412",'")%D/$-
'2"4$,1%84)&2"'%"N$2&/'41/0",'"&"424/+'-,>"+/V/$%>9"@."+/$"_78/E$/+"E8%+,&%b9"&f"
Zbornik za umetnostno zgodovino, 43 (2007), str. 219–236, 2. del (Interpretacija
virov), v: Zbornik za umetnostno zgodovino, 44 (2008), str. 139–160.
22" 78,0."1$%4,3'2"+/$2"2"D,)1,"?8,"C,4DP-*"$/)%"@KB@9"1,"'%)%'3'2"2D8%&'%&%")*+,"%')82pološke
ostanke in podatke, Bengt Thordeman, Armour from the Battle of Wisby,
1939 (ponatis: Chivalry Bookshelf 2001); prim. še Robert Hardy, Blood Red Roses;
The Archaeology of a Mass Grave from the Battle of Towton AD 1461, Oxford 2007.
132 ! V O J A Š K A Z G O D O V I N A
`$6"2&/O3-&1"2238&
and comprehensive research into castles and other
;$%'*;*F"'*$2E&9$%-&;$%&3a"6>13-&F*'C&]"11E=&h&IB'&83"1'&
with it only as part of the preservation of buildings
"28& 6$2B632'E.& %*E3&':"'&':3&"I$@3Z
mentioned fields of research have practically never
encroached into the border areas of research and
that it is only in recent years that interdisciplinary
">>%$"F:3E-&*2F1B8*2O&':3&F$$>3%"'*$2&$;&2"'B%"1&EF*-
32F3&;*318E-&:"@3&I332&*2'%$8BF38.&5:3&"%6E&"28&"%mour
depicted in medieval frescoes and other works
$;&"%'-&3E>3F*"11C&$2&'$6IE'$23E-&E:$B18&I3&3a"6*238&
6$%3& ':$%$BO:1C.& b$]3@3%-& E$63& 3a>3%'E& :"@3& "1ready
shown interest in them. UQ By carrying out geophysical
measurements and systematic field exami-
2"'*$2E-&"E&]311&"E&3aF"@"'*$2E-&"%F:"3$1$O*E'E&F$B18&
research the site of a medieval battle or the location
and remnants of siege devices or traces of fighting in
the area surrounding a selected medieval castle (not
'$& 632'*$2& "2C& 3@32'B"1& "2':%$>$1$O*F"1& 6"'3%*"1-&
from which modern forensic research methods are
able to extract many a secret). UU & 5:BE-& ':3C& ]$B18&
be able to gain new information on the history of
siege devices and firearms originating from the Late
Middle Ages onward. This area of historic research
*E&"1E$&>"%'&$;&23]&"%F:"3$1$O*F"1&">>%$"F:3E-&EBF:&
as experimental archaeology. Following the example
$;& $':3%& F$B2'%*3E& EBF:& "E& K%3"'& )%*'"*2-& 4326"%,&
$%&K3%6"2C-&':*E&'C>3&$;&"%F:"3$1$O*F"1&%3E3"%F:&F"2&
20 For an overview of archaeological research of the High and Late Middle Ages and
%"4>28)"D,D$,2E8%?>P"2J"0/+,/&%$"%8=>%/2$2E,=%$"4,)/49"%$42"/."E."=%4)$/49"4//"e20%V"
Nabergoj, Arheologija in gotika, in Gotika v Sloveniji – svet predmetov; Gothic in
Slovenia – the world of objects"_/+."F%-%"Z2W%8"u)%0=%89"h%82+',"0*W/-"N$2&/',-/9"
exhibition catalogue), Ljubljana 1995, pp. 7–107. Cf. also the collection of articles
on late medieval archaeological studies in Slovenia in the magazine Arheo, 25
_QRRSb9"??.":AO@@Q9",'"?%8),=*$%8"G%)%8,'%"78/+2&',19"h2&%"2DW28-%f"%8>/2$2E,-%"
0$%-(,>"2D+2D,-9",D,+/09"??."S@OSS9"%'+"e20%V"h%D/8E2-9"F*W/-,",'"%8>/2$2E,-%"
obdobij po zgodnjem srednjem veku, ibidem, pp. 89–96.
21" e20%V"Z%W%89"Z,12&',"&,8,"W%"&2-%(12"WE2+2&,'2"48/+'-/E%"&/1%L"N)/'412",'")%D/$'2"
4$,1%84)&2"'%"N$2&/'41/0",'"&"424/+'-,>"+/V/$%>9"?%8)"v"_U'"k&/8&,/X"2J"F%)/8,%$b9"
in Zbornik za umetnostno zgodovino, 43 (2007), pp. 219–236, part II (Interpretation
of ources), in: Zbornik za umetnostno zgodovino, 44 (2008), pp. 139–160.
22 Cf. work on the Battle of Wisby in 1361, which gives a detailed analysis of anthropological
remnants and information, Bengt Thordeman, Armour from the Battle of
Wisby, 1939 (reprint: Chivalry Bookshelf 2001); cf. Robert Hardy, Blood Red Roses;
The Archaeology of a Mass Grave from the Battle of Towton AD 1461, Oxford 2007.

2&#"23-=&!>.:#8/-=&.B-%/"=&2&D1$2:3-#-&$=%"3--
1$& .:1$& !"1$& $%$+#"& -3& B$#3:& $0%:!:& -.& 2-8$kega
in poznega srednjega veka (nekaj ga je
*>4-&2&."8:B3-&1"8*-L&0$&2:;-3-&3:%:'-8*%-%"3:-
'"&-3&3:4$8*$03:'"&."&%".-8/"2:?L&I:&!"3#&#:&
%".8*"21#:3:'"(& 5"/$& 0%:!$%:!$& 1:& 0%-B1-+3$&
eT&!:;:2&"1-&/"/I3:'"&2:;&7/"%&0"&*>4-&2&0%--
!:%#"2-&.&4%>'-!-&4%+"2"!-&3-&.:1$&!"1$?L&$4&
;:1"4& 30%(& 1:& 42"& +:1:.3"& /1$B>/"& -3& 42:& "1-&
*%-& 3"1-;3-H:L& 2& 28:=& .B-%/"=& 0"& 3-!"!$& 3-*-&
:3:'"& 0$0$13:'"& 8%:43#:2:I/:'"& 01$I;3:'"&
$/1:0"&3-*-&8:8*"23-=&4:1$2&."3#(&5$&3-&0$81:-
4-H"&1:&$!:3#:3:'"&%".2$#"&8*%$/:L&"!0"/&*>4-&
3"8*"#"3#"&$8%:43#-=&!>.:#8/-=&.B-%/(&5:&2&0%--
!:%#"2-&.&3:/"*:%-!-&4%>'-!-&4%+"2"!-L&/-&8$&
imele v srednjem veku svoje vladarske dina-
8*-#:&-3&B$'"*$&01:!8*2$L&3-8$&!$'1:&0%-4$B-*-&
'%"4-2"&-.&."/1"43-H&"1-&8*"%-=&01:!-I/-=&.B-%/&
$%$+#"&-3&$%$+"%3(&^:0%"2&8$&3"&3"I:!&$.:!1#>&
v okviru srednjeveškega cesarstva delovale
01:!-I/:& %$4B-3:L& 3:/"*:%:& 3"4%:'-$3"13$&
"1-&H:1$&4%+"23$&0$!:!B3:L&30%(&D0"3=:-!-L&
E34:I/-L&@-I3#:'$%8/-L&5>%#"I/-L&M%*:3B>%+"3-L&
A*>#8/-& -3& 8:2:4"& 3"#0$!:!B3:#I-L& `:1#8/-L& #:&
$4&3#-=&$8*"1$&B$%:&!"1$( Ve &9$B&;"8"L&3"#&8$&B-1-&
*$&0$+"%-L&2$#3:L&*>%I/-&20"4-&"1-&/!:;/-&>0$%-L&
#:&8*%1&3#-=$2:&!"*:%-"13:&0%:$8*"3/:L&%$4B-3:&
so pomrle ali se odselile. Marsikateri grad so
0$&%".0"4>&E28*%$[M'%8/:&1:*"&RWRZ&0%$4"1-&3"&
4%"+B-&8/>0"#&.&$0%:!$&-3&28:!L&/"%&#:&8$4-1$&
0$1:'L&$4&0$3>#:3:'"&0"&8$&!>.:#-&$B&/$3/>-
%:3H-&I*:2-13-=&4$!";-=&-3&*>#-=&/>0H:2&>80:li
dobiti le malo. Pregleda nad posameznimi
0%-!:%/-& $%$+#"& -3& B$#3:& $0%:!:L& /-& #:& 3"I1"&
0$*& 2& *>#-3$L& "& -.="#"& 8& 81$2:38/:'"& $.:!1#"L&
tudi nimamo. V\ &i%"#8/"&4:4-I;-3"&#:&B-1"&0$'$-
8*$&+:&2&8%:43#:!&2:/>&0$%>I:3"&-3&%".2"1-3:&
0$.3:#:&0%:.-4"3:&"1-&0%:0>I;:3:&0%$0"4"3#>(&
9"%"4-&3:%"H-$3"13-=L&-4:$1$I/$&$B%:!:3#:3-=&
2%:43$*:3#&2&V(&82:*$23-&2$#3-&-3&0$&3#:#&#:&$B&
%$!"3*-;3-& 4$B-1"& I:& !"3#& 0$.-*-23$& 0$4$B$&
2&."2:8*-&1#>4-(&K-&;>43$L&4"&8*"&3"%"2"&-3&2%-
8*"& "%=:$1$I/-=& 3"#4B& 0$'$8*$& P%"'!:3*"%3-J&
raziskave gradov in utrdb odkrijejo – enako
/"/$%& 2& *>#-3-& _& 0$& 2:;-3-& 4%$B3:& 0%:4!:*:&
-.&28"/4"3#:'"&+-21#:3#"L&4$8*-/%"*&1:&4:13$&-3&
81"B$&$=%"3#:3:L&=/%"*-&0"&0%:4!:*:L&/-&8$&B-1-&
."%"4-& /%=/$8*-& +:& 2& $B4$B#>& >0$%"B:& >3-;:-
3-& "1-& ."2%+:3-(& E%=:$1$'-& 8$& !:4& 2:;1:*3-!-&
23"k"7)*-41,>"-/"7218%-,'41,"0*W/-"7)*-"$/)%"QRRS"?8,?8%&,$"8%W4)%&2"Gospodje Ptujski;
Srednjeveški vitezi, graditelji in meceni.
24" 78,0."C%$)>/8"/$0"&2'"N)/,'",'"G8%,'9"&f"Zeitschrift für historische
Waffen- und Kostümkunde, 9/4 (1922), str. 122–124.
generate new insights and bring new knowledge on
':3&EBI#3F'&6"''3%&"28-&"'&':3&E"63&'*63-&F"2&I%*2O&
the medieval heritage closer to the public through
8*E>1"CE-&3a:*I*'*$2E&"28&':36"'*F&6BE3B6&>"%,E&h&
in particular to those individuals who would like to
participate in the understanding and revival of the
past. When are we going to build a medieval catapult
*2&N1$@32*"-&I"E38&$2&"%F:"3$1$O*F"1&;*28E&$%&%3;3%-
32F3E&*2&]%*''32&8$FB632'E-&"28&'3E'&*'Ä&&
The organisation and knowledge of arms and
"%6$B%& *2& N1$@32*"2& >BI1*F& F$113F'*$2E-& "E& ]311& "E&
':3& %3E3"%F:& ]$%,& *2'$& *'-& F"2& I3& I%*3;1C& 3E'*6"'38&
based on the study of expert museum literature and
visits to museum exhibitions. It is possible to estab-
1*E:&':"'-&*2&N1$@32*"-&$21C&"&E6"11&"6$B2'&$;&"%6E&
and armour of the High and Late Middle Ages are
>%3E3%@38&*2&>BI1*F&6BE3B6&F$113F'*$2E-&"28&"2&3@32&
smaller number of these are included in collections
that are exhibited (some examples are also part of
>%*@"'3& F$113F'*$2E-& BEB"11C& 2$'& %3O*E'3%38& "28& 2$'&
"FF3EE*I13& ;$%& %3E3"%F:& >B%>$E3E=.& 5:BE-& ':3%3& "%3&
cU& E]$%8E& *2& N1$@32*"-& ]:*F:-& F$6>"%38& '$& $':3%&
countries is not that little. The collection of helmets
comprises but two iron hats and two or three cheek
>*3F3E.&N$&;"%-&6BE3B6&F$113F'*$2E&8$&2$'&F$2'"*2&"2C&
complete medieval plate armour or components of it.
This is not just the consequence of the above-men-
'*$238& 83@31$>632'& $;& ':*E& %3E3"%F:& ;*318-& IB'& "1E$&
the result of how main museum collections were established.
In comparison with some other countries
with their own medieval ruling dynasties and rich
2$I*1*'C-&N1$@32*"2&6BE3B6E&]3%3&2$'&"I13&'$&"FdB*%3&
material from treasuries or old collections of arms
or the armouries of noblemen. Although some noble
families lived and operated on Slovenian territory in
':3&638*3@"1&b$1C&`$6"2&*%3-&E$63&$;&':36&]3%3&
of supra-regional and some of high importance in
':3&E'"'3-&;$%&3a"6>13&':3&N>"2:3*6E-&':3&/283F:E-&
':3& j3*F:E31I3%OE& 9G*J2#"& K$%"=-& ':3& /B3%E>3%OE&
95B%#",=-&':3&_%'32IB%OE-&':3&D$%8E&$;&H3''"B&9H'B#=&
"28-&"I$@3&"11-&':3&0$B2'E&$;&0*11*&9031#3=.&b$]3@3%-&
these left only a few remnants. Uc The ravages of time
h&I3&*'&;*%3-&]"%E-&_''$6"2&%"*8E&$%&>3"E"2'&%*E*2OE&
– destroyed their material remnants; families vanished
or moved away. Castles and their furniture
and other items were sold at auctions after the dis-
E$1B'*$2&$;&':3&/BE'%*"2ZbB2O"%*"2&*%3&*2&QVQY.&
Museums could only acquire a few items as the competition
from local and foreign buyers was fierce.
23" e>/"7)*-"

-./$0"2"3#-&3"&D*"%:!&'%"4>&3"4&`:1#:!L&8:4:-
+>&'%$P$2&`:1#8/-=L&-./$0"1-&$'%$!3$&'%"4-2"L&
0%:428:!&/>=-3#8/:'"&-3&3"!-.3:'"&0$8$4#"L&
/$2-38/-=& 0%:4!:*$2& 0"& .:1$& !"1$& _& 30%(& $4&
$%$+#"&8$&%".:3&%".1-;3-=&0>I;-;3-=&$8*-&3"I1-&1:&
:3&."/1#>;:/&3$+3-H:&!:;"&Ñ VY
6#:&8$&*$%:#&3"I:&!>.:#8/:&.B-%/:&$%$+#"&-3&
bojne opreme iz srednjega veka in kakšne so?
9'$43#:8%:43#:2:I/:& 3"#4B:L& /"*:%-=& 0%$B1:-
!"*-/"&#:&4%>'";3"&/$*&0%-&3"#4B"=&-.&2-8$/:-
'"&-3&0$.3:'"&8%:43#:'"&2:/"L&%".:3&3:/"#&3"-
/1#>;3-=&3"#4B&-3&3"#4B&-.&B1#"3-H:&-.="#"#$&
.&"%=:$1$I/-=&-./$0"2"3#L&30%(&'%$B-I;&.&L& B$'"-
*:&0%-!:%/:&-.&W(&-3&RT(&8*$1:*#"&0"&8$&3"I1-&3"&
i%"4-I;>&3"4&,"I1#:!&0%-&A%:442$%>(&5:!:1#-*&
0%:'1:4&*:=&3"#4B&.&B-B1-$'%"P-#$&#:&B-1&$B#"21#:3&
v katalogu ob razstavi _8&`*61#"2$@&8$&N1$@"nov&2&K"%$43:!&!>.:#>&D1$2:3-#:&1:*"&VTTR(
VS
K"#2:;#$&.B-%/$&$%$+#"&-3&B$#3:&$0%:!:&-.&2-sokega
in poznega srednjega veka ima Narodni
muzej Slovenije (ki ima sicer tudi pomembno
'%"4-2$&-.&3$2:'"&2:/"?(&M%$+#:&#:&B-1$&8:8*"23-&
4:1& 0%2-=& .B-%/L& %".8*"21#:3-=& $4& 1:*"& RZeR& 2&
*:4"3#-&1-H:#8/-&8*"2B-&2&B1#"3-L&/#:%&#:&4$B-1&
82$#:& 0%2:& 0%$8*$%:& 6%"3#8/-& 4:+:13-& !>.:#( Vk
A%:4!:*:L& 0$& 2:;-3-& 0%-4$B1#:3:& $.-%$!"& $4-
/%-*:&+:&2&RW(&8*$1:*#>L&0$8:B3$&$B&%:'>1"H-#"=&
-3&;-I;:3#-=&8*%>':&B1#"3-H:L&3"*$&0"&*>4-&.&
$4/>0-& 3"& 4%"+B"=& 0$& 0%2-& 82:*$23-& 2$#3-& -3&
4"%$2-L&#:&2&/"*"1$'>&$B#"2-1&*:4"3#-&/>8*$8&N:%-
4-3"34&5"3H-/&1:*"&RWkR( VZ Tancik se je prvi po-
4%$B3:#:&>/2"%#"1&.&$%$+#:!&-3&B$#3$&$0%:!$&
2&D1$2:3-#-L&*"/$&8&0%:4!:*-&/$*&8&0-83-!-&2-%-L VW
obravnaval je tudi zgodovino topništva in njegov
razvoj. 30 Poznejše pridobitve Narodnega
!>.:#"L&0$8:B3$&-.&B1#"3-H:L&8$&B-1:&$B#"2[
1#:3:&2&42:=&/"*"1$'-=&$&0$42$43-&"%=:$1$'-#-&
25" 78,0."$2E&"%3&F$2F3%238-&$21C&
$23& F:">3& ;%$6& "& EF"II"%8& ]"E& ;$B28-& "E*83& ;%$6&
various arrow-heads. UX
b32F3-&]:3%3&"%3&':3&N1$@32*"2&638*3@"1&6BE3B6&
collections of arms and armour and what kind are
':3CÄ& N"@3& ;$%& "& ;3]& F$*2F*832'"1& ;*28E-& 3"%1C& 63dieval
finds (which differ from the finds of high or
late medieval objects) originate from archaeological
3aF"@"'*$2&E*'3E-&EBF:&"E&':3&O%"@3C"%8E&*2&D"#:&*2&
7%"2#-&4%"@1#3&*2&D#BI1#"2"-&N$1,"2&"28&)*1#3&*2&':3&
Vipava Valley (Germanic finds from the 6 th and 7 th
centuries). From the 8 th &"28&V th &F32'B%*3E-&':3%3&"%3&
objects of Carolingian type found in the Ljubljanica
"28& N3I32#3& 23"%& )138p& %*F:& 3a"6>13E& ;%$6& ':3& V th
and 10 th & F32'B%*3E& ]3%3& ;$B28& *2& K%"8*JA3& "I$@3&
Bašelj near Preddvor. A thorough overview of these
;*28E-&F$6>13'3&]*':&"&I*I1*$O%">:C-&]"E&>BI1*E:38&
*2& ':3& F"'"1$OB3& ;$%& ':3& 3a:*I*'*$2& _8& `*61#"2$@&
do Slovanov (From the Romans to the Slavs) at the
M"'*$2"1&!BE3B6&$;&N1$@32*"&*2&USSQ. UR
24 Cf. Walther Rose, Der Topfhelm von Stein in Krain, in: Zeitschrift für historische
Waffen- und Kostümkunde, 9/4 (1922), pp. 122–124.
25 Cf. Rolanda Fugger Germadnik (ed), Grofje Celjski"_7218%-,'41,"0*W/-"M/$-/9"/j>,D,tion
catalogue), Celje 1999.
26" 72$2'%";,)/'=9"e,02)/-"G',J,="_/+4b9"Od Rimljanov do Slovanov. Predmeti (Narodni
muzej Slovenije, exhibition catalogue), Ljubljana 2001.

@$#"/&-.&RY(&8*$1:*#"&_&%:/$38*%>-%"3"&0$4$B"L&."&/"*:%$&8$&B-1:&
>0$%"B1#:3:&*>4-&%:01-/:&0%:4!:*$2L&3"#4:3-=&2&B1#"3-H-L&
-.4:1"2"J&5$!"+&$2E&"28&3dB*>632'-&*2F1B8*2O&%3>1*F"E&$;&$I#3F'E&
;$B28&*2&':3&%*@3%&D#BI1#"2*F".&`3>1*F"E&6"83&ICL&5$6"(&D"+"%-&
e$(3&5"@A"%-&M"'"J"&M363A3,-&4"@*8&P%"2F,C-&P%"2F&5"@A"%-&
e"2"&n2*8"%J*A-&USSmZUSSV
M I L I T A R Y H I S T O R Y ! 135
N$*$UPhotoJ&5$!"+&

2& D1$2:3-#-& 71:*"& RWZV& -3& RWZ\?L 31 v katalogu
%".8*"2:&$&'$*-/-&2&D1$2:3-#-&7RWWY?L eV v reviji
Varstvo spomenikov& 70$8:B3$& 1:*"& RWWk? 33 in
0$8"!:.3-=&!"3#I-=&$B#"2"=&2&0:%-$4-/-L&3:-
/"#&-.B%"3-=&3"#4B&0"&3"."43#:&2&/3#-'-&Stopinje
v preteklost $&."/1"4-=&-.&"%=:$1$I/-=&.B-%/&
!>.:#"&7VTTS?(&
@:;-3"& 4$B%$& $=%"3#:3-=& 0%-!:%/$2& $%$+#"&
-3&B$#3:&$0%:!:&-.="#"&-.&B1#"3-H:L&!:4&4%>-
'-!&VV&!:;:2&$4&RV(&4$&RY(&8*$1:*#"b&!>.:#&#:&
."&1:*$&VTTW&0%-0%"2-1&2:1-/$&%".8*"2$&$&B[
1#"3-H-&-3&3"#4B"=&.&3#:3:'"&43"&_&2&/"*"1$'>&
8$& 0%:48*"21#:3-& *>4-& $%$+#:& -3& B$#3"& $0%:!"&
ter konjeniška in konjska oprema. 34 &)"#=:3&-.bor
predmetov iz Ljubljanice je sicer na ogled
3"&"%=:$1$I/-&%".8*"2-&Zakladi Narodnega mu-
+3#"& N1$@32*#3. 35 Gradivo iz Ljubljanice je zelo
raznoliko in kljub posebnostim – to so vodne
3"#4B:L&."&/"*:%:&0$'$8*$&3:&0$.3"!$&3"*"3;-
3:&1$/"H-#:L&3"#4-I;3-&/$3*:/8*-&0"&8$&4%>'";3-&
/$*&3"&3"#4-I;-=&3"&/$03:!&_&$40-%"&I*:2-13"&
pomembna metodološka in zgodovinska vprašanja.
Med njimi samo omenimo problem in-
*:%0%:*-%"3#"& 0%:4!:*$2L& 0%:428:!& /"/$& #-=&
1"=/$&0$2:+:!$&.&.'$4$2-38/-!-&4$'"#"3#-&-3&
!:3*"1-*:*$& 4$B:J& ."/"#& $.-%$!"& ;:!>& 8$& 8:&
.3"I1-&3"&%:;3:!&43>L&*$%:#&3"/1#>;3$L&0$&3:-
8%:;-&"1-&3"!:%3$~&D$&*$&3"#4B:&0%$P"3:'"&"1-&
2$*-23:'"&.3";"#"~&5>&80$!3-!$&1:&3"&$0$.$-
%-1$& f"Hj>:8"& L&/-&!>&3"#2:;krat
pripada. 36
A$8"!-;3:& 0%-!:%/:& -3& .B-%/:& 0%:4!:*$2L&
31 Podvodna arheologija v Sloveniji, 1, Ljubljana 1982, in 2, Ljubljana 1984.
32" F%),-%"q%8E,9"N8/+'-,"&/1"O"m+8*E%"V/$/W'%"+2D%n9"&f Gotika v Sloveniji – svet predmetov"_*8."F%-%"Z2W%8"u)%0=%89"h%82+',"0*W/-"N$2&/',-/9"8."1.b9"Z-*D$-%'%"@AA!9"4)8."
175–185, in kataloški opisi, str. 290, 296, 297, 343–352, 362, 367.
33 Drago Svoljšak idr., Novo gradivo v Arheološkem oddelku Narodnega muzeja v
Ljubljani (pridobljeno v letih od 1987 do 1993), v: Varstvo spomenikov, 36/94-95
(1997), str. 224-294.
34" 7/)/8"e*81",+8."_*8.b9"K&6B,&#%'>#!P!(6,162%#!$)$'BI1*E:38& *2& QVmQ& IC&
Ferdinand Tancik. UY Tancik was the first curator in
Slovenia to deal with arms and armour in greater
83'"*1&h&':"'&*E-&]*':&$I#3F'E&"28&]*':&]%*''32&8$FBments.
UV He also studied the history of artillery and
its development. 30 Later acquisitions of the National
!BE3B6-&3E>3F*"11C&;%$6&':3&D#BI1#"2*F"-&]3%3&>BIlished
in two catalogues on underwater archaeology
*2&N1$@32*"&9*2&QVYU&"28&QVY[=- 31 in the catalogue
$;& ':3& K$':*F& >3%*$8& *2& N1$@32*"& 9QVVX=- cU in the
6"O"+*23& G"%E'@$& E>$632*,$@& h& 5:3& H%$'3F'*$2& $;&
!$2B632'E&93E>3F*"11C&*2&QVVm= 33 and individual mi-
2$%&>BI1*F"'*$2E&*2&>3%*$8*F"11C&*EEB38&1*'3%"'B%3-&"28&
finally some selected findings in the book Stopinje v
preteklost (Footprints to the Past) on treasures in ar-
F:"3$1$O*F"1&6BE3B6&F$113F'*$2E&9USSR=.&
The majority of well-preserved examples of arms
"28&"%6$B%&$%*O*2"'3&;%$6&':3&D#BI1#"2*F"-&*2F1B8-
*2O&UU&E]$%8E&;%$6&':3&QU th through to the 15 th cen-
'B%C.&W2&USSV&':3%3;$%3-&':3&6BE3B6&>%3>"%38&"&1"%O3&
exhibition on the Ljubljanica and the archaeological
;*28E&;%$6&*'E&I38.&/6$2O&$':3%&':*2OE-&':3&F"'"1$OB3&
>%3E32'E& "%6E& "28& "%6$B%-& "E& ]311& "E& F"@"1%C& "28&
horse equipment. 34 A small selection of finds from the
27 C f. the drawing in the publication Die Eröffnung des Landes-Museums in Laibach
wie selbe den 4. October 1831, zur Feier des allerhöchsten Namensfestes Sr. Majestät
unsers allgeliebten Kaisers abgehalten wurde, Laibach 1832.
28 Ferdinand Tancik, @23/&)!'%!B3&%#!392)A#!3$!%#-),'1.)!C,3.)%>).!$3!(3%>#!LOD!
stoletja (Narodni muzej, exhibition catalogue), Ljubljana 1971.
29" ]/8+,'%'+"e%'=,19"k82V-/"&"(12J-/$2(1/0"E8%+*"&"?8&,"3/)8),',"@T."4)2$/)-%9",'f"Loški
razgledi, 13 (1966), pp. 44–66; same author, Vojna stroka v obdobju od leta 1500
+2"@B!R9"G0/31,"?*'),"'%"N$2&/'41/0L"

0$& 2:;-3-& 3"/1#>;3$& 3"#4:3:& -3& 0$4"%#:3:L&
4:13$&*>4-&-./$0"3:&"1-&$4/%-*:&2&2$4-L&-!"#$&
posamezni pokrajinski in mestni muzeji. Z naj-
4-I;L&*"/$&.&'%"4$2&/$*&*>4-&-.&>%B"3-=&3"8:1-
B-3L& 8$& .3"3:& 0%:428:!& 0>I;-;3:& $8*-& ."& 1$/&
-3& 8"!$8*%:1L& 3:/"#& 8>1-;3-=& $8*-L& 3"#2:;/%"*&
!"#=3-& 4:1-& 2:%-+3:'"& -3& 01$I;3:'"& $/1:0"L&
od konjeniške opreme pa ostroge. V Pokrajinskem
muzeju Ptuj imajo na gradu stalno zbir-
/$& $%$+#"L& $B3$21#:3$& 1:*"& RWWW& -3& 0$0-8"3$&
2&/"*"1$'>L&2:34"%&#:&2:;-3"&'%"4-2"&3$2$2:ška.
37 & 9:1$& 4%"'$H:3-& 8$& 0%-!:%/-& *$0$28/-=&
H:2-L&0$8:B3$&*(&-(&/"!3$!:*"&-.&RY(&8*$1:*#"(&
F3"/$&2:1#"&."&A$/%"#-38/-&!>.:#&`:1#:L&/"*:-
%:'"&.B-%/$&8$&1:*"&VTTS&$B#"2-1-&2&/"*"1$'>&-3&
'"&0%:48*"2-1-&3"&$B;"83-&%".8*"2-J&-!"#$&1:&:3&
8%:43#:2:I/-&!:;&*:%&3:/"#&$8*%$'&-3&0>I;-;3-=&
$8*-L& I:& :3& '1"2-;& !:;"& -04( 38 Posavski muzej
,%:+-H:& -!"& *>4-& :3& !:;L& 0"& 3:/"#& 0>I;-H& -3&
$8*%$'L&*$&'%"4-2$&#:&B-1$&3"&$'1:4&3"&$B;"83-&
%".8*"2-& 1:*"& RWWYL& 2:34"%& 3-& B-1$& $B#"21#:3$&
v katalogu te razstave. eW Pokrajinski muzej
2& )"%-B$%>& -!"& 2& 4:0$#-=& /"%& 2:1-/$& .B-%/$&
$%$+#"L&/-&0"&#:&0%:428:!&3$2$2:I/$L&8%:43#:-
2:I/-=& 0%-!:%/$2& #:& .:1$& !"1$L& !:4& 4%>'-!-&
:3& 0$.3$8%:43#:2:I/-& !:;( 40 Ob prenovi mu-
.:#"& 2& !-3>1-=& 3:/"#& 1:*-=& 8$& 0%:H:#& '%"4-2"&
%".8*"2-1-& 2& 3$2$>%:#:3-=& %".8*"23-=& 42$%"-
3"=L& 0%-0%"21#"#$& /"*"1$'(& A$/%"#-38/-& !>.:#&
v Murski Soboti premore glede na katalog le
3:/"#&0%-!:%/$2&.&-./$0"2"3#L&80:*&0%:428:!&
0>I;-;3:& $8*-( 41 & K"& A%-!$%8/:!& #:& 0$4$B3$L&
najdb tako v Kopru kot tudi v Piranu in enako
v Goriškem muzeju na gradu Kromberk je
malo in so drobne. Notranjski muzej v Postoj-
3-&=%"3-&3:/"#&3"#4B&.&-./$0"2"3#&2&A%:4#"!-L&
!:4&3#-!-&-.8*$0"&3"1-;3-H"&;:1"4:(&i$%:3#8/-&
muzej Kranj ima zanimivo zbirko izkopanin
s Pustega gradu nad Lipnico (pri Radovljici)
8& /$3H"& 8%:43#:'"& $.-%$!"& .";:*/"& 3$2:'"&
2:/"L&!:4&3#-!-&0%:H:#&0>I;-;3-=&$8*-&-3&/%$-
'1-H&8*%:13:'"&$%$+#"L&0"&*>4-&42"&4:1"&$/1:0[
1#:3:'"& #$0-;"& $.-%$!"& B%-'"34-3:(& O$4"#!$L&
4"&*"&!>.:#&=%"3-&*>4-&42"&-.#:!3$&$=%"3#:3"&
37" F%8-/)%"M,E$/'/31,9"72$2'%"N/$,'(/19""B'2(#!323/&#!%#!916&-()A!:2#$6"_7218%-,'41,"
0*W/-"7)*-9"8."1.b9"7)*-"@AAA.
38" e%)-%'%";%+2&,'%=9"a%'12"a/$,3,i9"@23/&)?!QR!)%3!23(3!.*#A)A!96"%'*FB1"%1C&:$]&'$&*2'3O%"'3&':36&*2'$&
the context of historic events and the mentality of a
particular period. Why or for what purpose did they
"%%*@3&$2&':3&I$''$6&$;&':3&%*@3%Ä&j"E&*'&IC&F$*2F*-
832F3-&IC&"FF*832'&$%&$2&>B%>$E3Ä&/%3&':3E3&;*28E&$;&
"&>%$;"23&$%&"&@$'*@3&2"'B%3Ä&/'&':*E&>$*2'-&]3&E:$B18&
consider Jacques Le Goff’s suggestion concerning
EC6I$1*F& @"EE"1"O3& %*'3E-& 2"631C& ':"'& 3"F:& EC6I$1&
(and the same is valid for objects such as swords with
marks and inscriptions) should always be evaluated
*2&':3*%&F$2'3a'&$%-&'$&>B'&*'&6$%3&>%3F*E31C-&"E&>"%'&$;&
the system to which they belong. 36
Particular examples and collections of objects
that have usually been found by chance and were
8$2"'38-& E$63'*63E& "1E$& 3aF"@"'38& $%& ;$B28& B2-
83%]"'3%-&"%3&>%3E3%@38&*2&%3O*$2"1&"28&F*'C&6BE3ums.
Archaeological sites such as castles and urban
settlements are locations where arrow-heads for
I$]E&"28&F%$EEI$]E-&E$63&E>3"%Z:3"8E&"28&BEB"11C&
E6"11& >"%'E& $;& 6"*1& "28& >1"'3& "%6$B%& ]3%3& ;$B28-&
as well as spurs that were part of cavalry gear. The
Ptuj Regional Museum on the premises of the Ptuj
0"E'13& >%3E3%@3E& "& >3%6"232'& F$113F'*$2& $;& "%6E-&
]:*F:& ]"E& %32$@"'38& "28& F"'"1$OB38& *2& QVVVp& C3'&
the material mainly originates from the modern
times. 37 Particularly valuable are examples of gun
I"%%31E-&3E>3F*"11C&':3&E$&F"1138&ÑI$6I"%8z&$%*O*2"'ing
from the 15 th &F32'B%C.&/1E$-&':3&F$113F'*$2&$;&':3&
H$,%"#*2E,*& 6B+3#& 031#3& 9031#3& `3O*$2"1& !BE3B6=-&
]:*F:& ]"E& F"'"1$OB38& *2& USSR& "28& >B'& $2& 8*E>1"C&
*2& "& '36>$%"%C& 3a:*I*'*$2-& F$2'"*2E& $23& 638*3@"1&
E]$%8-& E>B%E& "28& "%%$]Z:3"8E-& "E& ]311& "E& "& E]$%8&
pommel etc. 38 &5:3&H$E"@E,*&6B+3#&9H$E"@#3&!BE3B6=&
35" e20%V"h%D/8E2-"_/+.b9"Stopinje v preteklost; Zakladi iz arheoloških zbirk Narodnega
muzeja Slovenije (Narodni muzej Slovenije, exhibition catalogue), Ljubljana
2006, pp. 122–123, 130–131.
36 Le Goff 1985, p. 429.
37" F%8-/)%"M,E$/'/31,9"72$2'%"N/$,'(/19""B'2(#!323/&#!%#!916&-()A!:2#$6"_7218%-,'41,"
0*W/-"7)*-9"/j>,D,),2'"=%)%$2E*/b9"7)*-"@AAA.""
38" e%)-%'%";%+2&,'%=9"a%'12"a/$,3,i9"@23/&)?!QR!)%3!23(3!.*#A)A!96

N$*$U&PhotoJ&,$%-8&N"%-;
5$0$2-&-.&.B-%/:&A$/%"#-38/:'"&!>.:#"&A*>#L&2&$80%:4#>&%:4:/&
primerek bombarde iz 15. st.
0"22$2E&;%$6&F$113F'*$2&$;&H%$@*2F*"1&6BE3B6&H'B#-&*2&;$%3;%$2'&
rare example of bombard from 15 th century
-3&.:1$&%:4/"&0%-!:%/"&P%"3/$28/-=&1"!:13-=&
$/1:0$2L&$4/%-*"&$B&-./$0"2"3#-=&2&6%"3#>&1:*"&
VTTY(&.:#&2&Q/$P#-&':&
4-&#:&'%"4-2$&+:&%".8*"21#:3$L&
0"&0$&2:;-3-&3-&$B#"21#:3$L&/"#&I:1:&3"*"3;3:#:&
0%:>;:3$(&A%"2&*"/$&#:&!:4&-.2-%3-!&'%"4-2$!&
!$'$;:& 3"#*-& /"/I3$& /$0-#$& "1-& 0$3"%:4:/& -.&
RW(&$.-%$!"&VT(&8*$1:*#"(&D1$2:38/:&!>.:#:&-3&
8*%$/$23#"/:&-.&4%>'-=&>8*"3$2&3"&*:!&0$4%$-
;#>&;"/"&I:&2:1-/$&4:1"(&
Izjemno mesto in poslanstvo bo poleg obrav-
3"2"3-=&!>.:#:2&0%:2.:1&3:4"23$&>8*"3$21#:3-&
@$#"I/-&!>.:#&D1$2:38/:&2$#8/:L&/"*:%:'"&3$2:&
0%$8*$%:&>%:#"#$&2&!"%-B$%8/-&6"4:*3-H-(&@&3#-=&
42" a2V/" u)*1$9"Arheološke raziskave srednjeveške Škofje Loke (Loški muzej, r. k.),
u12J-%"Z21%"QRRTL",4),"%&)289"k"?*(3,3',>"24)/>"W%"$21",'"4%024)8/$"W"2D023-%"48/-
+'-/&/(1/"u12J-/"Z21/9"&f"Arheološki vestnik, 58 (2007), str. 367–374.
43 Danijela Brišnik, Tone Ravnikar, Grad Šalek, Velenje 1999.
44 Milan Sagadin, Zasip pri Bledu, v: Varstvo spomenikov, 27 (1985), str. 288–289.
45" U'+8/-"#%4?%8,9"N8/+'-/&/(1,"0/3",W"8/1/"Z%>,'-/"&"t8'20$-*9"&f"82%3A#,&-('!*B32-
%'(4!"B32%'(!0'-132'7%'0!2#*92#.!3B!OSTU,)1%'>'!92.)!3A)AB)!%#-),&#!'%!MTTU,)1%'>'!
92.)!3A)AB)!82%3A,&#!(31!A)-1#"_*8."a%'/W"C/,44b9"t8'20/$-"QRRS9"4)8."@R@O@@T.
138 ! V O J A Š K A Z G O D O V I N A
*2&)%3(*F3&>%3E3%@3E&"&F$113F'*$2&*2F1B8*2O&"&E]$%8-&
"&;3]&"%%$]Z:3"8E&"28&E>B%E-&]:*F:&]"E&$2&8*E>1"C&
*2&"&'36>$%"%C&3a:*I*'*$2&*2&QVVX-&C3'&]"E&2$'&>BIlished
in the catalogue of this exhibition. cV The depot
$;&':3&H$,%"#*2E,*&6B+3#&!"%*I$%&9!"%*I$%&`3O*$2"1&
Museum) houses a considerable collection of arms
originating from the Modern Period in particular.
b$]3@3%-& ':3%3& "%3& $21C& ;3]& 638*3@"1& 3a"6>13E& $;&
':3E3-& *2F1B8*2O& "& 1"'3& 638*3@"1& E]$%8. 40 Upon the
%32$@"'*$2&$;&':*E&6BE3B6-&]:*F:&'$$,&>1"F3&*2&%3-
F32'&C3"%E-&dB*'3&"&;3]&*'36E&]3%3&>1"F38&$2&8*E>1"C&
in the newly arranged exhibition halls and a catalogue
is in the process of being prepared. According to
*'E&F"'"1$OB3-&':3&F$113F'*$2&$;&':3&H$,%"#*2E,*&6B+3#&
Murska Sobota (Murska Sobota Regional Museum)
F$2'"*2E&$21C&"&;3]&3aF"@"'*$2&;*28E-&"O"*2&6"*21C&
arrow-heads. 41 The situation is similar in the museums
of the Primorska (Littoral) region; the collections
of archaeological finds in the museums of
7$>3%-&H*%"2&"28&M$@"&K$%*F"&9':3&7%$6I3%,&0"E'13=&
contain just a few smaller items. The Notranjski
6B+3#& 9M$'%"2#E,"& !BE3B6=& *2& H$E'$#2"& >%3E3%@3E&
"&;3]&"%F:"3$1$O*F"1&;*28E&8*EF$@3%38&*2&H%38#"6"-&
among which the visor of a helmet is most notable.
5:3& K$%32#E,*& 6B+3#& 7%"2#& 9K$%32#E,"& `3O*$2"1&
Museum) houses a collection of items discovered at
the Waldenberg Castle (Pusti grad) above Lipnica
(near Radovljica) dating from the end of the Middle
Ages or the beginning of the Modern Period. This
collection contains a considerable number of arrow-
:3"8E&"28&;*%3"%6&IB113'E-&"E&]311&"E&']$&>"%'E&$;&"2&
"%6$B%38&@3E'&9"&I%*O"28*23=.&PB%':3%6$%3-&':*E&6Bseum
also preserves two exceptionally well-preserved
"28&@3%C&%"%3&3a"6>13E&$;&P%"2,*E:&1"6311"%&"%6$B%-&
which were discovered during archaeological excava-
'*$2E&*2&7%"2#&*2&USSX.&5:3&D$J,*&6B+3#&9â,$;#"&D$,"&
Regional Museum) contains an interesting collection
$;& "%6E-& ':$BO:& $21C& 8"'*2O& ;%$6& 6$83%2& '*63E.&
It also houses a few examples of arrow-heads and
E'$23&I"11E-&]:*F:&]3%3&;$B28&8B%*2O&3aF"@"'*$2E&*2&
7%"2F31#&"28&*2&':3&'$]2&F32'%3. [U Such material can
"1E$&I3&;$B28&*2&':3&E6"113%&6BE3B6E-&;$%&3a"6>13&
':3& G3132#E,*& 6B+3#& 9G3132#3& 6BE3B6=& ]*':& *'36E&
39" `$%4)%" H/-%19" k82V-/" ,W" 724%&41/E%" 0*W/-%" _724%&41," 0*W/-" ;8/V,=/9" /j>,D,),2'"
=%)%$2E*/b9";8/V,=/"@AA!."]28")>/"4X28+"4//"N)%'12"u1%$/89"G8(129",'f"`%84)&2"4?2menikov,
XVII-XIX/1 (1974), p. 171.
40" "MJ."N%(2""24)/>"W%"$21",'"4%-
024)8/$"W"2D023-%"48/+'-/&/(1/"u12J-/"Z21/9",'f"Arheološki vestnik, 58 (2007), pp.
367–374.

o na stalni razstavi prikazana vojna in vojaška
zgodovina slovenskega ozemlja od prazgo-
4$2-3:L&>0$I*:2"3$&B$&*>4-&2$#"I/$&4:1$2"3#:&
posameznikov in skupin drugod po Evropi in
82:*>(& )>.:#8/:& .B-%/:& 8$& ."& !1"#I"& $B4$B#"L&
0%:428:!& ."& VT(& 8*$1:*#:L& +:& /"%& $B8:+3:L& ."&
starejše dobe pa šele nastajajo. Posebno za pri-
/".& *:=& $B4$B-#L& 2/1#>;3$& 8& 8%:43#-!& 2:/$!L&
B$&0$1:'&0$8$#:3-=&0%:4!:*$2&*%:B"&>0$%"B-*-&
*>4-&%:01-/:&-3&%".1-;3:&4%>':&!>.:"18/:&3";-ne.
Vojaški muzej pa bi z dobrim sodelovanjem
1"=/$&0%-4$B-1&0$!:!B3:&0%:4!:*:&-3&.B-%/:L&
B$4-8-&2&*%"#3$&1"8*&B$4-8-&2&=%"!B$&"1-&0$8$#$L&
tudi od zasebnikov.
Naj ob tem omenimo še zasebne zbirke
$%$+#"&-3&B$#3:&$0%:!:L&/-&8$&#-=&0$8"!:.3--
/-& 0%-4$B-1-& *"/$& "1-& 4%>'";:L& 3"& *%'>& 8*"%-3L&
.&4:4$2"3#:!L&2&4"%L&"1-&8$&#-=&!$%4"&3"I1-&0$&
3"/1#>;#>(& 6:%& '%:& ."& />1*>%3$& 4:4-I;-3$& 81$-
2:38/:'"&$.:!1#"L&B-&8-&."%"4-&3>#3$8*-&3#:3:'"&
$=%"3#"3#"& -3& 8!-8:13$8*-& 0%:>;:2"3#"& +:1:1-&
dobro sodelovanje med zasebniki in javnimi
>8*"3$2"!-L&0%:428:!&0$$B1"I;:3-!-&!>.:#-L&
/-& 8$& 0$/1-H"3-& 8/%B:*-& ."& 0%:!-;3$& />1*>%3$&
4:4-I;-3$(&MB;>*1#-2$&0%$B1:!"*-/$L&/-&."4:2"&
0$8:B3$&"%=:$1$I/:&3"#4B:L&$4/%-*:&.&3:8*%$kovnim
in nezakonitim izkopavanjem oziroma
0$*"01#"3#:!L&#:&1:*"&VTTZ&23$2-;&>%:4-1&3$2-&
."/$3& $& 2"%8*2>& />1*>%3:& 4:4-I;-3:L& !-3-8*%stvo
za kulturo pa je to poskušalo uradno ure-
4-*-&8&0$.-2$!&/&0%-#"2-&"%=:$1$I/-=&3"#4B&2&."-
8:B3-&1"8*-(&@8:/"/$%&#:&2&."8:B3-=&.B-%/"=&*>4-&
0%:H:#&8%:43#:2:I/:'"&'%"4-2"L&3:/"#&'"&#:&B-1$&
dostopnega za strokovno obdelavo in predsta-
2-*:2&#"23$8*-&3"&%".8*"2"=(&):4&."8:B3-/-L&/-&
8$&*>4-&$B#"2-1-&82$#:&3"#4B:L&-.8*$0"&3:/4"3#-&
brigadir Slovenske vojske in publicist Janez J.
Švajncer s svojim Vojnim muzejem v Logatcu
-3& /"*"1$I/-!-& $B#"2"!-& '%"4-2"L 46 sicer tudi
"2*$%&2:;&!$3$'%"P-#&-3&;1"3/$2&$&2$#3-&-3&2$jaški
zgodovini ter urednik revije G$#2$+O$8$-
@*2E,*&+I$%2*,. 47
Ta kratek vpogled v raziskanost srednjeve-
I/:'"&$%$+#"&-3&B$#3:&$0%:!:&2&3"I-=&!>.:#-=&
naj predvsem opozori na pomen srednjeveške
4:4-I;-3:& _& ;:0%"2& #:& 3-& 2:1-/$L& #:& 0"& *$1-/$&
B$1#&4%"'$H:3"&_&-3&3"&3>#3$8*&3$2-=&%".-8/"2L&
$B#"2& -3& %".8*"2(& K"1$':L& /-& ;"/"#$& !>.:#8/:&
46" Y%"48/+'-/&/(1/"?8/+0/)/"E$/-"?8/+&4/0"a%'/W"a."u&%-'=/89"V)7'4!B3$#,#4!%3/',
Logatec, Ljubljana 2007; isti avtor, Sulice, sekire, helebarde, Logatec 2008.
47" h?8."a%'/W"a."u&%-'=/89"Vojna in vojaška zgodovina Slovencev, Ljubljana 1991; isti
avtor, Vojna zgodovina9"Z-*D$-%'%"@AASL",4),"%&)289"H&%"'%(%"48/+'-/&/(1%"0/3%9"&f"
8#-39'-!*#!*:3$3.'%3!'%!%#23$39'-&), 2 (1993), str. 164–171.
3aF"@"'38& *2& â"13,- 43 & "28& ':3& K$%2#3E"@E,*& 6B+3#&
e3E32*F3& 9k>>3%& N"@"& G"113C& 6BE3B6& *2& e3E32*F3=-&
which houses a rare spear-head found in Zasip near
)138- 44 &$%&':3&)31$,%"#2E,*&6B+3#&9)31"&7%"#*2"&6B-
E3B6=& *2& !3'1*,"-& ]:*F:& 3a:*I*'E& ':3& 1"'3E'& ;*28& $;&
a medieval sword discovered on the bed of the river
D":*2#"&*2&á%2$631#. 45 &k2;$%'B2"'31C-&"2&3a:"BE'*@3&
overview of collections does not exist: although the
*'36E& "%3& 3a:*I*'38-& ':3C& "%3& BEB"11C& 23*':3%& >BI-
1*E:38&2$%&3a"6*238&*2&83'"*1.&/'&':3&E"63&'*63-&*'&
*E&>$EE*I13&'$&;*28&F$>*3E&$%&;$%O3%*3E&;%$6&':3&QV th or
':3&US th century among the original material. This
is a challenge that Slovenian museums and experts
from other institutions will have to face.
W2&"88*'*$2&'$&':3&"I$@3Z632'*$238&6BE3B6E-&':3&
%3F32'1C&3E'"I1*E:38&G$#"J,*&6B+3#&N1$@32E,3&@$#E,3&
9!*1*'"%C& !BE3B6& $;& ':3& N1$@32*"2& /%638& P$%F3E=-&
whose new premises are in the process of being ar-
%"2O38&"'&':3&0"83'&NF:$$1&*2&!"%*I$%-&]*11&>1"C&"2&
important role and assume a significant mission in
this area. A permanent exhibition at this museum
will present the war and military history on the
Slovenian territory from the prehistoric period on-
]"%8-&*2F1B8*2O&':3&6*1*'"%C&"F'*@*'*3E&$;&*28*@*8B"1E&
and groups around Europe and elsewhere. The mu-
E3B6&F$113F'*$2E&;%$6&6$%3&%3F32'&>3%*$8E-&3E>3F*"11C&
;%$6& ':3& US th & F32'B%C-& "%3& "1%3"8C& ;"*%1C& 3a'32E*@3&
"28-&;$%&$183%&>3%*$8E-&':3C&"%3&E'*11&I3*2O&F$6>*138.&
H"%'*FB1"%1C&;$%&':3&8*E>1"C&$;&$183%&>3%*$8E-&*2F1B8-
*2O&':3&!*8813&/O3E-&"1$2O&]*':&I$%%$]38&*'36E-&*'&
will also be necessary to use replicas and various
methods of museum presentation. Through an ap-
>%$>%*"'3& F$$>3%"'*$2-& ':3& !*1*'"%C& !BE3B6& F$B18&
even acquire significant items and collections from
>%*@"'3& *28*@*8B"1E-& 3*':3%& >3%6"232'1C-& $%& *2& E'$%age
or loan.
W2&':*E&F$2'3a'-&]3&E:$B18&632'*$2&>%*@"'3&F$113Ftions
of arms and armour that were acquired by in-
8*@*8B"1&>3%E$2E&*2&':*E&$%&"2$':3%&]"C-&$2&"2'*dB3E&
6"%,3'E-&$%&IC&*2:3%*'"2F3-&"E&>%3E32'E&$%&;$B28&IC&
chance. As this concerns the cultural heritage of the
N1$@32*"2&'3%%*'$%C-&*'&*E&23F3EE"%C&'$&E'%*@3&;$%&]311Z
established cooperation between private persons and
>BI1*F& *2E'*'B'*$2E-& 3E>3F*"11C& "B':$%*E38& 6BE3B6E&
that are tasked with the care of movable cultural
:3%*'"O3.& 5:*E& E32E*'*@3& >%$I136-& ]:*F:& 3E>3F*"11C&
concerns archaeological finds discovered through
B2>%$;3EE*$2"1&"28&*113O"1&3aF"@"'*2O&$%&8*@*2O-&]"E&
43 Danijela Brišnik, Tone Ravnikar, Grad Šalek, Velenje 1999.
44 Milan Sagadin, Zasip pri Bledu, in: Varstvo spomenikov, 27 (1985), pp. 288–289.
45" U'+8/-"#%4?%8,9"N8/+'-/&/(1,"0/3",W"8/1/"Z%>,'-/"&"t8'20$-*9",'f"82%3A#,&-('!*B32-
%'(4!"B32%'(!0'-132'7%'0!2#*92#.!3B!OSTU,)1%'>'!92.)!3A)AB)!%#-),&#!'%!MTTU,)1%'>'!
92.)!3A)AB)!82%3A,&#!(31!A)-1#"_/+."a%'/W"C/,44b9"t8'20/$-"QRRS9"??."@R@O@@T."
M I L I T A R Y H I S T O R Y ! 139

8*$8:L&;:&+:1-#$&0%:8:;-&.4"#I3#:&%".!:%:L&8$&
torej jasne: najprej oziroma na novo pregledati
4:0$#:&-3&8*"13:&%".8*"23:&0$8*"2-*2:L&/$1-/$%&
2/1#>;>#:#$&*:!:&-3&0%:4!:*:&*:&2%8*:L&*:%&3"rediti
oziroma dopolniti sezname muzejskega
gradiva. Novo odkrito in prepoznano gradivo
#:& *%:B"& /$38:%2-%"*-L& -32:3*"%-.-%"*-& -3& 0%--
!:%3$& $B#"2-*-(& 6"*"1$'-& .B%"3-=& 0%:4!:*$2&
so nato nujni temelj za nadaljnje poglobljeno
0%:>;:2"3#:L&/-&3"#&2/1#>;>#:&%".1-;3:&3"%"2$-
81$23$[*:=3-;3:& "3"1-.:L& "%=:$1$I/:& $.-%$!"&
.'$4$2-38/:& %".-8/"2:(& 6$3;3-& %:.>1*"*& 3"#&
bodo nove ali dopolnjene stalne razstavne po-
8*"2-*2:& $.-%$!"& $B;"83:& %".8*"2:L& 8/>0"#& .&
%:/$38*%>/H-#"!-& "1-& !$4:1-& $%$+-#& -3& 3"0%"2L&
8&8H:38/-!-&-3&2-%*>"13-!-&0%-/".-L&$B&3#-=&0"&
3$2$&.3"3#:&-3&3$2-&0$'1:4-&3"&4$1$;:3$&.'$dovinsko
tematiko oziroma obdobje.
Muzeji imajo ob tem še eno pomembno nalogo:
z nasveti in strokovno podporo pomagati
28:!L&/-&#-=&."3-!"*"&0$.3"2"3#:&-3&$+-21#"3#:&
8%:43#:'"&2:/"L&0$8:B3$&3"&*(&-(&8%:43#:2:I/-=&
0%-%:4-*2"=L& 2-*:I/-=& 43:2-=& -3& -'%"=( 48 K ve-
%$4$8*$#3:#I:!>& 0$'1:4>& 3"& 8%:43#-& 2:/& #-=&
1"=/$& >8!:%#"#$& -3& #-!& 0$!"'"#$& %".1-;3$J& .&
$=%"3#"3#:!& -3& %".-8/"2$& 8*"%:'"& 0%:4!:*"L&
.& $4/%-2"3#:!& -3& >0$%"B$& 8*"%:'"& 3";-3"& -.-
4:1"2:&%:01-/:L&8&I*>4-#:!&-3&-.2"#"3#:!&8*"%-=&
B$%-13-=&2:I;-3(&@8-&8$&0$*%:B3-&-3&0$!:!B3-L&
/:%&1"=/$&0%-80:2"#$&/&4$B%:!>&4-"1$'>&-3&8$delovanju
med poznavalci in ljubitelji srednje-
2:I/-=&B$%-13-=&2:I;-3&3"&:3-&8*%"3-&*:%&!>.:#-&
-3&2&3#-=&."8*$0"3-!-&8*%$/"!-&3"&4%>'-&8*%"3-(&
A%:4!:*&-.&!>.:#8/:&2-*%-3:&-3&>4"%:H&.&$%$+-
#:!&0$8*"3:*"&!$8*&!:4&83$2#$&-3&4>=$!&8%:-
43#:'"&2:/"L&!:4&0%:*:/1$8*#$&-3&8:4"3#$8*#$(
K"I"& 3"1$'"& #:& 0%"2& *"/$& 8:.3"3-*:2& *>#-=&
8*%$/$23#"/$2& .& $%$+#:!& -3& B$#3$& $0%:!$& -.&
81$2:38/-=& !>.:#8/-=& .B-%/L& 8& *:!& 0"& *>4-& .&
vojno in vojaško zgodovino slovenskega ozem-
1#"(&D1$2:3-#"&#:&3"&*:!&0$4%$;#>L&28"#&/"%&."-
4:2"&8%:43#-&2:/L&I:&2:43$&mB:1"&1-8"n(&l/%"*-&
#:& 3>#3$& 0$.3"2"3#:& 3"#3$2:#I-=& %".-8/"2& 3"&
0$4%$;#>& !:4-:2-8*-/:& -3& 0$8:B:#& $%$+#"& *:%&
2$#3:& -3& 2$#"I/:& .'$4$2-3:(& D"!$>!:23$& #:L&
4"&#:&*%:B"&."&*$&4:1$&0%-4$B-*-&>8*%:.3$L&0%:4-
28:!& 8$4$B3$& 8*%$/$23$& 1-*:%"*>%$L& /-& #:& 2&
48"78,0."e20%V"h%D/8E2-9"'38&*2&USSY.&5:3&!*2*E'%C&$;&
Culture made a formal attempt to regulate this area
with a call to report archaeological finds in private
>$EE3EE*$2.&/'&"2C&%"'3-&>%*@"'3&F$113F'*$2E&F3%'"*21C&
contain many medieval objects. Some items have
also been accessible for expert examination and
public display at exhibitions. Among those people
who have made their finds public is the now retired
)%*O"8*3%& $;& ':3& N1$@32*"2& /%638& P$%F3E-& e"23+& e.&
â@"#2F3%-& ]:$& 8*E>1"C38& :*E& F$113F'*$2& *2& :*E& G$#2*&
6B+3#&9j"%&!BE3B6=&*2&D$O"'3F.&b3&"1E$&>BI1*E:38&
several catalogues of his objects. 46 &!$%3$@3%-&:3&*E&':3&
author of several monographs and articles on war
"28&6*1*'"%C&:*E'$%C-&"E&]311&"E&':3&38*'$%&$;&':3&6"O-
"+*23& G$#2$+O$8$@*2E,*& +I$%2*,& 9!*1*'"%C& b*E'$%C&
Bulletin). 47
/I$@3& "11-& ':*E& "%'*F13& E:$B18& >$*2'& $B'& ':3& E*Onificance
of medieval heritage – although there are a
1*6*'38&2B6I3%&$;&':3E3&*'36E-&':3C&"%3&$;&:*O:&@"1B3&
h&"28&':3&23F3EE*'C&$;&23]&%3E3"%F:&3;;$%'E-&>BI1*F"tions
and exhibitions. The tasks that museum curators
will have to undertake if they want to improve
':3&FB%%32'&E*'B"'*$2&"%3-&':BE-&F13"%L&;*%E'&$%&"O"*2&
examine the museum depots and permanent exhibitions
with regard to whether these include objects
related to the relevant topics and to draw up and
supplement lists of museum items. It is necessary
to conserve the newly discovered and identified ob-
#3F'E-&'$&6",3&"2&*2@32'$%C&$;&':36&"28&'$&8*E>1"C&
them. Catalogues of collected items therefore present
"&23F3EE"%C&I"E*E&;$%&;B%':3%&':$%$BO:&3a"6*2"'*$2-&
which should include various scientific and techni-
F"1&"2"1CE3E-&"E&]311&"E&"%F:"3$1$O*F"1&"28&:*E'$%*F"1&
research. The final result should be a new or supple-
632'38&>3%6"232'&3a:*I*'*$2&;"F*1*'C-&$%&'36>$%"%C&
3a:*I*'*$2E-& "1$2OE*83& %3F$2E'%BF'*$2E& $%& 6$831E& $;&
"%6E&"28&83@*F3E-&*2F1B8*2O&>3%;$%6"2F3E&"28&@*%'B-
"1& %3F$2E'%BF'*$2E-& "FF$6>"2*38& IC& 23]1CZ"FdB*%38&
knowledge and new views on a specific historical
theme or period.
/88*'*$2"11C-& 6BE3B6E& :"@3& '$& "EEB63& "2$':3%&
important task: to offer advice and expert support
for all those who are interested in the understand-
*2O& "28& %3@*@"1& $;& ':3& !*8813& /O3E-& 3E>3F*"11C& 8B%-
*2O&3@32'E&%31"'38&'$&':3&!*8813&/O3E-&1*,3&Ñ,2*O:'Ef&
tournaments”. 48 There are several ways to direct
46" ]28"0/+,/&%$"2D-/=)4"=20?%8/",'"?%8),=*$%8"a%'/W"a."u&%-'=/89"V)7'4!B3$#,#4!%3/',
Logatec, Ljubljana 2007; same author, Sulice, sekire, helebarde, Logatec 2008.
47" ]28"/j%0?$/"a%'/W"a."u&%-'=/89"`2-'%",'"&2-%(1%"WE2+2&,'%"N$2&/'=/&9"Z-*D$-%'%"
1991; same author, Vojna zgodovina, Ljubljana 1998; same author, Dva naša sre-
+'-/&/(1%"0/3%9",'f"t%42?,4"W%"WE2+2&,'2",'"'%82+2?,4-/9"Q"_@AAKb9"??."@BTO@:@.
48"MJ."e20%V"h%D/8E2-9"n"
prireditvah pri nas, in: Argo, 49/1 (2006), pp. 151–169.

81$2:38/-=&/3#-+3-H"=&8/$%"#4"&3-(&@.0$8*"2-*-&
ali okrepiti moramo tudi redne strokovne sti-
/:& 8& *>#-!-& /$1:'-L& 0$8:B3$& -.& 3"H-$3"13-=& -3&
80:H-"13-=&!>.:#:2&8&0$!:!B3-!-&.B-%/"!-( \W
Ker v Sloveniji z izjemo nedavno nastalega
@$#"I/:'"&!>.:#"&D1$2:38/:&2$#8/:&3-&/>8*$8$2L&
/-&B-&8:&>/2"%#"1-&0%:428:!&.&$%$+#:!&-3&B$#3$&
$0%:!$L&B$&8!-8:13$&.4%>+-*-&!$;-&-3&.3"3#:(&
K"%$43-&!>.:#&D1$2:3-#:&."&1:*$&VTRR&3";%*>#:&
2:;#$&%".8*"2$&$&2-*:I*2>L&3"&/"*:%-&B-&2&8$4:1$-
2"3#>&.&4%>'-!-&!>.:#8/-!-&>8*"3$2"!-&+:1:1-&
zbrati vse pomembne primerke srednjeveškega
$%$+#"&-3&B$#3:&$0%:!:&-.&D1$2:3-#:(&C".8*"2"&
B$&0%2-;&0%-&3"8&H:1$8*3$&0%-/"."1"&2-*:I*2$&-3&
z novimi spoznanji poskušala predstaviti bolj
2:%$4$8*$#3$&0$4$B$&*:&*:!"*-/:L&/-&#:&B-1"&4$slej
strokovno precej zapostavljena. Z njo bo
K"%$43-&!>.:#&D1$2:3-#:&0$&\T&1:*-=&80:*&2&2:-
;#:!&$B8:'>&0%:48*"2-1&$%$+#:&-3&B$#3$&$0%:!$&
-.&82$#-=&.B-%/&70$&%".8*"2-&N(&5"3H-/"&_%$(#3&*2&
bojna oprema od naselitve Slovencev do konca
17. stoletjaL&RWkR?L&.&-.2-%3-/-&"1-&/$0-#"!-&0"&
B$&0$/"."1&*>4-&0$!:!B3$&'%"4-2$&-.&4%>'-=&
81$2:38/-=&!>.:#:2&*:%&3:/"#&-.&*>#-3:(&C".8*"-
2"&B$&0%:48*"2-1"&3$2:&0%-8*$0:&2&0%:>;:2"3#>&
$%$+#"&-3&B$#3:&$0%:!:&$.-%$!"&B$#:2"3#"&-3&
2$#8/$2"3#"&3"801$=L&2/1#>;3$&.&>0$%"B$&3"%"-
2$81$23-=&!:*$4&-3&:/80:%-!:3*"13:&"%=:$1$gije.
Obravnavala bo viteze kot posameznike
-3& 4%>+B:3$& 8/>0-3$& $.-%$!"& /"*:'$%-#$L& 3#--
=$2&3"8*"3:/L&21$'$&-3&0$!:3&2&8%:43#:2:I/-&
4%>+B-&0%-&3"8&$4&/$3H"&.'$43#:'"&8%:43#:'"&
veka (oziroma 10. ali 11. stoletja) do konca po-
.3:'"&8%:43#:'"&2:/"&-3&.";:*/"&3$2:'"&2:/"&
(15. in 16. stoletje). Spomnila bo na ideale viteštva
kot element univerzalne kulture in primer
m2-I#:& ;1$2:;3$8*-nL& /"/$%& 8$& 8:& %".2-1-& 2& 8%:-
43#:2:I/-=&0%:48*"2"=&-3&2.*%"#"1-&2&1-*:%"*>%-&
-3&/>1*>%-&3"801$=&$4&8%:43#:'"&2:/"&4$&4"3:8(&
Prikazan bo tudi razvoj viteštva v novem veku
730%(&2-*:I/:&-'%:&2&Rk(&8*$1:*#>L&2-*:I/-&%:4$2-&
2&RZ(&-3&RW(&8*$1:*#>?L&$B&*:!&0"&$43$8&4$&2-*:-
I*2"&2&RW(&-3&VT(&8*$1:*#>L&/$*&8$&'"&$B1-/$2"1-&
=-8*$%-.:!&-3&%$!"3*-;3:&0%:48*"2:&2&1-*:%"*>-
%-L&1-/$23-&>!:*3$8*-&-3&"%=-*:/*>%-L&-4:$1$I/$&
$B%:!:3#:3-& 0$'1:4-& 3"& 2-*:I*2$L& 01:!8*2$L&
8%:43#-&2:/&*:%&/$3;3$&0$0>1"%3"&/>1*>%"&8&P-1-
!-L&8*%-0-L&-'%";"!-&-3&%";>3"13-I/-!-&-'%"!-(&
49"`"W+8*V/'-/"0*W/-/&"W%"&2-'2",'"&2-%(12"WE2+2&,'29"1,"+/$*-/"&"21&,8*"0/+'%82+'/"
0*W/-41/"28E%',W%=,-/"vMkF9"4)%",W"N$2&/',-/"&1$-*3/'%"$/"F*W/-"'2&/-(/"WE2+2&,'/"
Slovenije, Ljubljana, in Vojaški muzej Slovenske vojske, Maribor.
these groups towards a more authentic view of the
Middle Ages and to help them: by preserving and
3a"6*2*2O& $18& $I#3F'E-& 8*EF$@3%*2O& "28& 36>1$C*2O&
old methods of manufacturing replicas and studying
and carrying out old martial arts. All these are
necessary and important as they can contribute to
a real dialogue and established cooperation between
experts and admirers of medieval martial arts on the
$23&:"28&"28&':3&6BE3B6E&"28-&':%$BO:&':3E3-&%3>resented
research fields on the other hand. An object
from a museum showcase and a strike with a weapon
may become the bridge between the substance and
':3&E>*%*'&$;&':3&!*8813&/O3E-&"28&I3']332&':3&>"E'&
and the present.
Another mission of museums is to inform foreign
experts on arms and armour in Slovenian museum
F$113F'*$2E&"28-&':BE-&"1E$&$2&':3&]"%&"28&6*1*'"%C&
history of the Slovenian territory. Slovenia is still a
ÑI1"2,& E:33'& $;& >">3%z-& "'& 13"E'& ]*':& %3O"%8& '$& ':3&
Middle Ages. It is also necessary to learn about the
newest research endeavours in the area of mediev-
*E'*FE-& 3E>3F*"11C& "%6E& "28& ]"%T6*1*'"%C& :*E'$%C.& W'&
goes without saying that it is necessary to acquire
"83dB"'3& "28& 6$83%2& 3a>3%'& 1*'3%"'B%3-& ]:*F:& *E&
hardly available in the Slovenian libraries. Regular
contacts with foreign colleagues from national and
E>3F*"1*+38&6BE3B6E&':"'&>%3E3%@3&E*O2*;*F"2'&F$113Ftions
have to be established and enhanced. [V
As there are no curators who focus their research
primarily on arms and armour – with the exception
of the recently established Military Museum of the
Slovenian Armed Forces – it would be reasonable to
join efforts and share knowledge with other experts.
W2&USQQ-&':3&M"'*$2"1&!BE3B6&$;&N1$@32*"&>1"2E&"&
6"#$%&3a:*I*'*$2&$2&,2*O:':$$8-&*2&]:*F:&"11&E*O2*;*cant
examples of medieval arms and armour from
Slovenia would be compiled in cooperation with other
museum institutions. This exhibition will be the first
'$&O*@3&"&F$6>%3:32E*@3&*2E*O:'&*2'$&,2*O:':$$8&"28-&
I"E38&$2&23]&*2E*O:'E-&'$&'%C&'$&>%$@*83&"&6$%3&"B-
':32'*F&*6"O3&$;&':*E&'$>*F-&]:*F:&:"8&I332&F$2E*83%-
"I1C&23O13F'38&E$&;"%.&W2&':*E&3a:*I*'*$2-&':3&M"'*$2"1&
Museum of Slovenia will present arms and armour
;%$6&*'E&F$113F'*$2E&*2&"&I%$"83%&EF$>3-&;$%&':3&;*%E'&
'*63&*2&[S&C3"%E&h&E*2F3&':3&3a:*I*'*$2&IC&P.&5"2F*,-&
_%$(#3& *2& I$#2"& $>%36"& $8& 2"E31*'@3& N1$@32F3@& 8$&
,$2F"&Qm.&E'$13'#"-&QVmQ&9/%6E&"28&"%6$B%&;%$6&':3&
settlement of the Slovenians up to the 17 th &F32'B%C-&
49 In the Association of Museums for war and military history that operates in the
context of an international museum organisation ICOM, only two Slovenian museums
are included, namely the Muzej novejše zgodovine Slovenije (Museum of
Contemporary History of Slovenia) in Ljubljana and the Military Museum of the
Slovenian Armed Forces in Maribor.
M I L I T A R Y H I S T O R Y ! 141

C".8*"2"&B$&*"/$L&>0"!$L&$0$.$%-1"&3"&4"3"šnje
dojemanje in razumevanje viteštva oziro-
!"&8%:43#:'"&2:/"&3"801$=J&3"&.!$*3:&0%:4-
8*"2:L& 8*:%:$*-0:& -3& 0%:48$4/:& $& 2-*:I*2>& -3&
8%:43#:!&2:/>L&3"&-.%$;-1$&-3&4:4-I;-3$&8%:4[
3#:'"& 2:/"& 8/$.-& 8$4$B3:& %".-8/"2:& %".1-;3-=&
8*%$/L& 3"& 0$!:3& 8%:43#:'"& 2:/"& ."& %".2$#& -3&
sodobno zgodovino Evrope in Slovenije. V tem
$/2-%>&-!"*"&$%$+#:&-3&B$#3"&$0%:!"&-.&81$2:3-
8/-=&!>.:#8/-=&.B-%/&B-8*2:3$&-3&3:0$'%:I1#-2$&
mesto.
/$,0"5"#
M%$+#:& -3& B$#3"& $0%:!"& -.& 81$2:38/-=& !>-
.:#8/-=& .B-%/& 8*"& 0$!:!B3"& 2-%"& ."& 2$#3$& -3&
vojaško zgodovino slovenskega ozemlja ter za
%".1-;3:& 4%>':& 2-4-/:& 8%:43#:2:I/:& .'$4$2-ne.
Doslej ju z nekaj izjemami niso pogloblje-
3$&0%:>;:2"1-(&A%:4!:*-&-.&!>.:#8/-=&.B-%/&8$&
B-1-&1:&2&!"#=3-&!:%-&2/1#>;:3-&2&!:4-:2-8*-;3:&
%".-8/"2:L& I$18/:& -3& I*>4-#8/:& 0%$'%"!:& *:%& 2&
!>.:#8/:&%".8*"2:L&8&*:!&0"&*>4-&2&3"I:&.'$4$vinsko
vedenje v celoti.
M=%"3#:3$& 8%:43#:2:I/$& $%$+#:& -3& B$#3"&
oprema sta pomembna za nove raziskovalne
>8!:%-*2:& -3& !$+3$8*-& ."& B$1#& $B#:/*-23$& -3&
!"3#&8*:%:$*-03$&2%:43$*:3#:&4:4-I;-3:&*:&2%-
8*:(& MB& /$38:%2"*$%8/-=& 0$8*$0/-=& -3& *-0$1$-
I/$[/%$3$1$I/-=& %".-8/"2"=& #:& ."& 0$.3"2"3#:&
'%"4-2L&0$8*$0/$2&-.4:1"2:L&1"8*3$8*-&-3&>0$%"Bnosti
predmetov treba upoštevati metode eks-
0:%-!:3*"13:&"%=:$1$'-#:&$.-%$!"&%:/$38*%>/-
H-#& 0%:4!:*$2L& 0$8:B3$& 3"& 0$41"'-& %".1-;3-=&
3"%"2$81$23$[*:=3-;3-=&"3"1-.&-3&0%:8/>8$2(
M%$+#"& -3& B$#3:& $0%:!:& *:%& /$3#:3-I/:& -3&
konjske opreme iz visokega in poznega sre-
43#:'"&2:/"&8:&#:&2&#"23-=&!>.:#8/-=&.B-%/"=&
2&D1$2:3-#-&$=%"3-1$&.:1$&!"1$L&I:&!"3#&'"&#:&
%".8*"21#:3:'"&73:/"#&'"&#:&*>4-&2&."8:B3-&1"8*-L&
2:;-3"& 3:%:'-8*%-%"3:'"& -3& 3:4$8*$03:'"& ."&
%".-8/"2:?(&K"#2:;#$&.B-%/$&-!"&K"%$43-&!>.:#&
D1$2:3-#:L&0$8:B3$&4$B%$&$=%"3#:3:&0%-!:%/:&
-.& B1#"3-H:L& /-& #-& #:& 1:*"& VTTW& 0$82:*-1& %".-
8*"2$(&A$8"!-;3:&0%-!:%/:&-3&.B-%/:&0%:4!:-
*$2L&3"#2:;/%"*&3"/1#>;3$&3"#4:3:&-3&0$4"%#:-
3:L&4:13$&*>4-&-./$0"3:&"1-&$4/%-*:&2&2$4-L&8$&
3"& 8*"13-=& "1-& $B;"83-=& %".8*"2"=& 0%:48*"2-1-&
0$8"!:.3-& 0$/%"#-38/-& -3& !:8*3-& !>.:#-L& 0$-
8:B3$&3"&A*>#>L&2&)"%-B$%>L&`:1#>&-3&,%:+-H"=(&
O$B%:'"&0%:'1:4"&3"4&.B-%/"!-&3-L&8"#&2:;-3"&
gradiva ni objavljena. Stalno razstavo vojne
in vojaške zgodovine slovenskega ozemlja od
142 ! V O J A Š K A Z G O D O V I N A
QVmQ=.&5:%$BO:&$%*O*2"1E&"28&F$>*3E-&*'&]*11&"1E$&>B'&
significant items from other Slovenian and foreign
museums on display. The exhibition will present new
">>%$"F:3E& '$& E'B8C*2O& "%6E& "28& "%6$B%-& "E& ]311&
"E&]"%;"%3&*2&O323%"1-&*2F1B8*2O&':3&BE3&$;&EF*32'*;*F&
methods and experimental archaeology. It will deal
with knights as individuals and as a social group or
F"'3O$%C-& ':3*%& I3O*22*2O-& %$13& "28& E*O2*;*F"2F3& *2&
the medieval society in Slovenia from the end of the
Early Middle Ages (10 th or 11 th century) to the end of
the Late Middle Ages (15 th and 16 th centuries). It will
be a reminder of the chivalric ideals as an element
of universal culture and provide an example of “a
greater humanity” as it developed in the medieval
>3%F3>'*$2E-& "E& 83EF%*I38& *2& 1*'3%"'B%3& "28& "E& :"E&
been part of our culture from the Middle Ages until
the present day. The exhibition will also reflect the
development of the knighthood in the modern period
9;$%&3a"6>13-&,2*O:'Ef&'$B%2"632'E&*2&':3&Qm th century
and the orders of knights in the 18 th &"28&QV th cen-
'B%*3E=-&*2F1B8*2O&':3&%31"'*$2E&'$]"%8E&,2*O:':$$8&
*2&':3&QV th &"28&US th centuries as formed by historical
"28&%$6"2'*F&>3%F3>'*$2E&*2&1*'3%"'B%3-&;*23&"%'E&"28&
"%F:*'3F'B%3-&*83$1$O*F"11C&IB%83238&@*3]E&$2&,2*O:'-
:$$8-&2$I*1*'C-&':3&!*8813&/O3E&"28-&;*2"11C-&>$>&"%'&
]*':&6$@*3E-&F$6*FE-&'$CE&"28&F$6>B'3%&O"63E.&j3&
hope that the exhibition will illustrate the current
understanding of knighthood and the Middle Ages in
O323%"1L& ]%$2O& >3%F3>'*$2E-& E'3%3$'C>3E& "28& >%3#B-
8*F3E&"I$B'&,2*O:':$$8&"28&':3&!*8813&/O3E-&':3&13Oacy
and heritage of the Middle Ages through modern
research in various fields and the significance of the
Middle Ages to the development and modern history
$;& 3& "28& N1$@32*".& W2& ':*E& F$2'3a'-& "%6E& "28&
armour for Slovenian museum collections assume a
fundamental and indispensable position.
Summary
The arms and armour in Slovenian museum collections
are important sources for researching the
war and military history of the Slovenian territory
as well as other aspects of medieval history. With a
;3]&3aF3>'*$2E-&':3C&:"@3&2$'&E$&;"%&I332&':3&EBI#3F'&
of a more in-depth research. Their integration into
':3&>%3E32'&638*3@*E'*F&%3E3"%F:&3;;$%'E-&EF:$$1&"28&
study programmes as well as museum exhibitions
"28-&':BE-&*2&"&F$6>%3:32E*@3&B283%E'"28*2O&$;&:*Etorical
facts is all rather limited.
N*6B1'"23$BE1C-&':3&>%3E3%@38&638*3@"1&"%6E&"28&
armour are of particular importance for examining
further research directions and the possibilities
$;& "& 8*;;3%32'-& 6$%3& $I#3F'*@3& "28& 13EE& E'3%3$'C>38&

prazgodovine naprej pa pripravlja nedavno
ustanovljeni Vojaški muzej Slovenske vojske.
K"1$':& 81$2:38/-=& !>.:#:2& 8$& #"83:J& 3"#-
0%:#&$.-%$!"&23$2-;&0%:'1:4"*-&4:0$#:&-3&8*"1-
3:& %".8*"23:& 0$8*"2-*2:L& "1-& 2/1#>;>#:#$& *:!:&
-3&0%:4!:*:&*:&2%8*:L&*:%&-.4:1"*-&$.-%$!"&4$polniti
sezname muzejskega gradiva. Na novo
odkrito in prepoznano gradivo je treba kon-
8:%2-%"*-L&-32:3*"%-.-%"*-&-3&0%-!:%3$&$B#"2-*-(&
6"*"1$'-& .B%"3-=& 0%:4!:*$2& 8$& 3>#3-& *:!:1#&
."&3"4"1#3#:&0%:>;:2"3#:L&/-&3"#&2/1#>;>#:&3"-
%"2$81$23$[*:=3-;3:& "3"1-.:L& "%=:$1$I/:& $.--
%$!"& .'$4$2-38/:& %".-8/"2:(& 6$3;3-& %:.>1*"*&
3"#&B$4$&3$2:&"1-&4$0$13#:3:&8*"13:&-3&$B;"83:&
%".8*"2:L&8/>0"#&.&%:/$38*%>/H-#"!-&"1-&!$4:-
1-&$%$+-#&-3&3"0%"2L&8&8H:38/-!-&-3&2-%*>"13-!-&
0%-/".-L&$B&3#-=&0"&8:2:4"&3$2$&.3"3#:&-3&3$2-&
0$'1:4-& 3"& 4$1$;:3$& .'$4$2-38/$& *:!"*-/$&
oziroma obdobje.
evaluation of this medieval heritage. Along with conservation
methods and typological and chronologi-
F"1&%3E3"%F:3E-&63':$8E&$;&3a>3%*632'"1&"%F:"3$1$OC&
%3E>3F'*@31C&':3&%3F$2E'%BF'*$2&$;&$I#3F'E-&*2&>"%'*FBlar
based on various scientific and technical analyses
"28&'3E'E-&E:$B18&I3&F$2E*83%38&;$%&B283%E'"28*2O&':3&
6"'3%*"1E-& 6"2B;"F'B%3& >%$F38B%3E-& F:"%"F'3%*E'*FE&
and use of the objects.
W'&*E&>$EE*I13&'$&3E'"I1*E:&':"'-&*2&N1$@32*"-&$21C&"&
few examples of arms and armour as well as cavalry
and horse gear of the High and Late Middle Ages are
>%3E3%@38&*2&>BI1*F&6BE3B6&F$113F'*$2E-&"28&"2&3@32&
smaller number of these are part of collections that
are exhibited (some examples are also part of private
F$113F'*$2E-&BEB"11C&2$'&%3O*E'3%38&"28&2$'&"FF3EE*I13&
for research purposes). The biggest collection is pre-
E3%@38&IC&':3&M"'*$2"1&!BE3B6&$;&N1$@32*"-&3E>3F*"1ly
well preserved objects from the Ljubljanica which
]"E& ':3& EBI#3F'& $;& "2& 3a:*I*'*$2& *2& USSV.& WE$1"'38&
pieces and collections of objects that have usually
I332&;$B28&IC&F:"2F3&"28&]3%3&8$2"'38-&E$63'*63E&
"1E$& 3aF"@"'38& $%& ;$B28& B283%]"'3%-& "%3& >%3E3%@38&
*2&%3O*$2"1&"28&F*'C&6BE3B6E-&*2&>"%'*FB1"%&*2&H'B#-&
!"%*I$%-&031#3&"28&)%3(*F3.&/&':$%$BO:&$@3%@*3]&$;&
':3&$I#3F'E&8$3E&2$'&3a*E'-&"E&':3&*'36E&"%3&BEB"11C&
not on display. A permanent exhibition on war and
military history of the Slovenian territory from the
prehistoric period onward is in the process of being
prepared by the Military Museum of the Slovenian
Armed Forces.
The tasks that museums will have to undertake
are clear: first or again examine the depots and permanent
exhibitions with regard to whether these
include objects related to the relevant topics and to
draw up and supplement lists on museum items. The
newly discovered and identified objects have to be
F$2E3%@38-&"2&*2@32'$%C&:"E&'$&I3&6"83&$;&':36&"28&
they need to be displayed. Catalogues of collected
items therefore present a necessary basis for further
':$%$BO:&3a"6*2"'*$2-&]:*F:&E:$B18&*2F1B83&@"%*$BE&
EF*32'*;*F&"28&'3F:2*F"1&"2"1CE3E-&"E&]311&"E&"%F:"3$logical
and historic research. The final result should
be a new or supplemented permanent exhibition
;"F*1*'C-& $%& '36>$%"%C& 3a:*I*'*$2E-& "1$2OE*83& %3F$2-
E'%BF'*$2E&$%&6$831E&$;&"%6E&"28&83@*F3E-&*2F1B8*2O&
>3%;$%6"2F3E&"28&@*%'B"1&%3F$2E'%BF'*$2E-&"FF$6>"nied
by newly-acquired knowledge and new views on
a specific historical theme or period.
M I L I T A R Y H I S T O R Y ! 143

144 ! V O J A Š K A Z G O D O V I N A

J)'$#$P&)-&4$0-$'1"2-+","3#$&$1$O+"&)0&
71>"$*$3#)>&#$-5"#'5$,.&/1):"1Q&,)5"3#)&:"%&)0&
4$0-$1):'#"87&,$2-"87&0()17*-)#7&-7&R+2$,'#":&
8172E6&-72&J17-+":&
High and Late Medieval Weapons from
Archeological Contexts.
Example: A Knight’s Sword from a Late Roman
Water Cistern at Ajdovski Gradec above Vranje
!
U0,*"%"#
A NDREJ GA S PA R I
doktor arheoloških znanosti, kustos
Vojaški muzej Slovenske vojske, Engelsova 15, 2000 Maribor; andrej.gaspari@siol.net
Prispevek obravnava najdbo nepoškodo-
2"3:'"& 2-*:I/:'"& !:;"& -.& R\(& "1-& .";:*/"& RY(&
stoletja v vodnem zbiralniku poznorimske na-
8:1B-3:& 3"& E#4$28/:!& '%"4H>& 3"4& @%"3#:!(&
K"#4-I;3:&$/$1-I;-3:&3"/".>#:#$L&4"&#:&B-1&!:;&
3"#2:%#:*3:#:&8/>0"#&.&1$3;:3$&0$8$4$&4:0$3--
%"3& 2& 4:13$& ."8>*& .B-%"13-/L& ."1-*& .& 2$4$(& X.bira
skritega in odmaknjenega vodnega mesta
2&$0>8*:1-&3"8:1B-3-&-3&"3"1$'-#:&8&P:3$!:3$!&
4:0$#8/-=&-3&2$43-=&3"#4B&$!$'$;"#$&8/1:0"-
3#:L&4"&8*"&B-1"&!:;&-3&0$8$4"&$41$+:3"&2&$/2-ru
obrednega dejanja.
!"#$%&'()'*'+',&E#4$28/-&'%"4:H&3"4&@%"-
3#:!L&"%=:$1$'-#"L&$%$+#:L&2-*:I/-&!:;L&8%:43#-&
2:/L&2$43:&3"#4B:(
Y2#1)5+"&)-&-7+2)3%-"&$#$*)3%)-"
E#4$28/-&'%"4:H&3"4&@%"3#:!&0%-&D:23-H-&#:&
znana poznorimska utrjena naselbina s kom-
01:/8$!& H:%/2"& -3& 3:/%$0$1$& 3"& 2%=>& =%-B"&
7\eS&!?&3"4&@%"3#8/-!&0$*$/$!L&\&/-1$!:*%:&
severno od Sevnice oziroma glavne regionalne
Abstract
5:3& "%'*F13& "88%3EE3E& ':3& >%3E32F3& $;& "2& *2'"F'-&
14 th century or early 15 th & F32'B%C-& ,2*O:'1C& E]$%8&
in a water cistern of a Late Roman fortification at
Ajdovski gradec above Vranje. The circumstances of
the find indicate that the sword had probably been
83>$E*'38&*2'$&"&>"%'*"11C&IB%*38&F*E'3%2-&;*1138&]*':&
]"'3%-&'$O3':3%&]*':&"&F3%"6*F&>$'.&5:3&F:$*F3&$;&"&
hidden and remote water cistern in a desolate fortifi-
F"'*$2-&"E&]311&"E&"2"1$O*3E&]*':&':3&>:32$632$2&$;&
:$"%8E&"28&]"'3%&;*28E-&EBOO3E'&':"'&':3&E]$%8&"28&
the pot had been deposited during a ritual act.
Key words:&/#8$@E,*&O%"83F&"I$@3&G%"2#3-&"%F:"3-
$1$OC-&]3">$2E-&,2*O:'1C&E]$%8-&!*8813&/O3E-&]"'3%&
finds.
The Discovery and its Circumstances
Ajdovski gradec above Vranje near Sevnica is a fa-
6$BE-&D"'3&`$6"2&;$%'*;*38&E3''13632'-&F:"%"F'3%*E38&
by two churches and a necropolis located at the top of
a hill (436 m) above the Vranjski potok (stream). It is
situated 4 km north of Sevnica or the main regional
communication through the valley of the Sava River.
M I L I T A R Y H I S T O R Y ! 145

E#4$28/-&'%"4:H&3"4&@%"3#:!(&K";%*&3"8:1B-3:&.&$.3";:3-!&
3"#4-I;:!&!:;"&70$&D2$1#I"/&-4%(&RWWk?
povezave po dolini reke Save. V okviru izko-
0"2"3#&$8*"3/$2&3"8:1B-3:&-.&Y(&-3&S(&8*$1:*#"L&
/-&#-=&#:&$0%"2-1&K"%$43-&!>.:#&-.&B1#"3:&2&
$B4$B#>&$4&1:*"&RWkT&4$&RWWT&7D1(&R?L 1 so v se-
.$3"=&RWkkUkZ&%".-8/"1-&*>4-&2$43-&.B-%"13-/&8&
0%$8*$%3-3$&RVT(TTT&1-*%$2L V &$&/"*:%:!&0$%$;"&
+:&D-!$3&C>*"%&1:*"&RZWR(&K"&'%"4-I;>&$!:3#"&
0%"2$/$*:3&2$43#"/L&2:1-/&Y&r&\&!L&m2&/"*:%:!&
8:& 4$B-& .!:%"#& 2$4"& -3& 3:& 0%:8"=3:& *>4-& $B&
3"#2:;#-&8>I-n(&A$4"&*>4-&4$!3:2$L&m4"&3"#&B-&
B-1&2$43#"/&.:1$&'1$B$/L&2:34"%&#:&4$&0$1$2-H:&
zasut z ruševino«. 3
MB&23$2-;3:!&$4/%-*#>&1:*"&RWk\&#:&B-1&.B--
%"13-/&$B&8:2:%3:!&4:1>&$B.-4#"&4$&2%="&."8>*&
8& /"!:3#:!& -3& 0%:/%-*& 8& 0%8*#$L& 3"2$+:3$& -.&
okolice. Vklesan je bil v skalo 5 m in pol glo-
B$/$L&3"&0%:1$!>&2&8*%!$&8:2:%3$&0$B$;#:&0"&
#:&.'$%3#-&4:1&#"!:&."!:#:2"1"&8*:3"L&3"81$3#:na
ob skalno podlago. Jama je bila obzidana s
0%-B1-+3$&ST&H!&4:B:1-!-&8*:3"!-&-.&/"!3$2&
1 Timotej Knific, Vranje near Sevnica: A Late Roman Settlement in the Light of Cer-
)%,'"72))/8P"],'+49"&f"Arheološki vestnik, 45 (1994), str. 211–237.
Q" 7/)/8" 7/)8*9" e,02)/-" G',J,=9"Novo arheološko odkritje na Ajdovskem gradcu pri
Sevnici, Sevnica 1978.
K" N,02'"-&:$]3@3%-&:"1;&':3&]"C&
through it is filled with debris.’ 3
j:32& ':3& ]"'3%& F*E'3%2-& >$E*'*$238& 23a'& '$& ':3&
2$%':&E*83&$;&':3&]"11-&]"E&%38*EF$@3%38&*2&QVm[-&*'&
was completely filled with stones and soil. It was
carved into a rock 5.5m deep. At the edge leading
into a steep northern slope of the hill the upper part
of the cave was surrounded by a wall against a rock
surface. The cave was enclosed by an approximately
60 cm thick wall made of rock and hydroscopic
1 Timotej Knific, Vranje near Sevnica: A Late Roman Settlement in the Light of Cer-
)%,'"72))/8P"],'+49",'f"Arheološki vestnik, 45 (1994), pp. 211–237.
Q" 7/)/8" 7/)8*9" e,02)/-" G',J,=9"Novo arheološko odkritje na Ajdovskem gradcu pri
Sevnici, Sevnica 1978.
K" N,02'"

-3&=-4%$8/$03:&!"1*:&8&0%-!:I"3$&.4%$B1#:3$&
$0:/$L&/-&#:&-!:1"&."&B$1#I:&*:83#:3#:&.'1"#:3$&
notranjo površino.
):4&-./$0"2"3#-&2&1:*-=&RWkkUkZ&8$&3"1:*:1-&
na vodo šele po odstranitvi zgornjega dela pol-
3-1"&V&!&-3&0$1&'1$B$/$(&5-/&3"4&'1"4-3$&2$4:&
so na ruševini v kotu ob severni steni našli
+:1:.:3&!:;&-3&.4%$B1#:3$&/:%"!-;3$&0$8$4$L&
/-& 8*"& !:4& $8*"1-!& '%"4-2$!& .& 3"#4-I;"& 0$2-
8:!&-.$1-%"3"(&@&%>I:2-3-L&/-&#:&8:'"1"&4$&43"&
H-8*:%3:L& 8$& $4/%-1-& 4:1:& 8*%:I3:& /$38*%>/H-#:&
*:%&$B4:1"3:&/"!3-*:&:1:!:3*:L&42"&$1*"%#"&-3&
4:1:&%-!8/-=&3"'%$B3-/$2L&0%"2&3"&43>&0"&1:-
8:3$&01$I;"4L&0$/%$2&.&$40%*-3$L&1:8*:2L&/$%-*$L&
škripec in druge najdbe. Na podlagi ostankov
1:8:3-=&/$38*%>/H-#&-3&"3"1$'-#&.&4%>'-!-&3"#-
4-I;-&%".-8/$2"1H-&4$!3:2"#$L&4"&8$&3"4'%"#:ne
stene zbiralnika podpirale obrambni stolp s
I*-%-/"03$&8*%:=$L&/-&#:&2"%$2"1&4%"'$H:3&2$43-&
vir naselbine pred izstrelki. 4 Omenjena oltarja
v ruševini stolpa sta bila bodisi prinesena
3"&E#4$28/-&'%"4:H&8/>0"#&.&4:1-&'%$B3:&"%=--
*:/*>%:&.&3:.3"3:'"&3"#4-I;"&2&4$1-3- 5 ali pa
'%:&."&81:4$2:&8*"%:#I:'"&%-!8/:'"&82:*-I;"&3"&
2%=>& =%-B"L 6 & /-& #:& B-1& 4$/"."3$& 0$8:1#:3& +:& 2&
prazgodovini.
9"&%".0%"2$&$&!$+3:!&$."4#>&0$#"2"&$B:=&
0$.3$8%:43#:2:I/-=&0%:4!:*$2&2&.B-%"13-/>&#:&
/1#>;:3& $.:/& 0%:B$#& .-4"3:& 8*:3:& .B-%"13-/"L&
/-& #:& B-1& 3"#2:%#:*3:#:& 3"!:3#:3& ."& .3-+"3#:&
vodne gladine. Glede na Rutarjevo navedbo o
2-I-3-&2$4:&-3&0$%$;-1$&-.&1:*"&RWkZL&/-&'$2$%-&
$& 0$0$13$!"& ."8>*:!& .B-%"13-/>L& #:& 0$8:'& 2&
8*:3$&3"8*"1&0$&C>*"%#:!&$B-8/>L&.:1$&2:%#:*3$&
kot posledica dejavnosti iskalcev zakladov ob
/$3H>&RW(&8*$1:*#"L&/-&8$&80$4B>4-1:&*>4-&0%2:&
"%=:$1$I/:&%".-8/"2:&2&1:*-=&$4&RWTR&4$&RWTY( 7
Tako razlago podpira tudi Riedlova omemba
$40%*-3:& 8:2:%$."=$43:!& 2$'"1>& .B-%"13-/"L&
$& /"*:%-& #:& .!$*3$& !:3-1L& 4"& #:& B-1"& 2=$4& 2&
kletni prostor stolpa. 8 Neodgovorjeno ostaja
20%"I"3#:L& ."/"#& B-& /1#>B& >0"41-& '1"4-3-& 2$4:&
8*"%-3$/$0-&$0>8*-1-&/$0"3#:&-3&0>8*-1-&!:;&3:dotaknjen.
T" 7/)8*"O"G',J,="@A:S9"4)8."!O:L"G',J,="@AAT9"4)8."Q@KOQ@T9"4$."Tf"TL"!O:.
!" 7/)8*"O"G',J,="@A:S9"4)8."B.
B" 78,0."N$%&12"M,E$/'/31,9"5W,'-!X32'(W%D!53*%3#%1'7%)!.'1"';$%6-&"&F$@3%&]*':&"2&$>32*2O-&"&1"883%-&
"&'%$BO:-&"&>B113C&"28&$':3%&$I#3F'E&]3%3&;$B28.&_2&
':3&I"E*E&$;&]$$832&F$2E'%BF'*$2&%36"*2E-&"E&]311&"E&
E*6*1"%*'*3E&]*':&$':3%&"%F:3$1$O*F"1&E*'3E-&%3E3"%F:ers
believe that reinforced walls of the water cistern
EB>>$%'38& "& 83;32E3& '$]3%& ]*':& "& ;$B%Z3"@38& %$$;-&
used to protect this precious water resource against
projectiles. 4 & 5:3& ";$%3& 632'*$238& "1'"%E-& ;$B28& *2&
':3&'$]3%&%B*2E-&:"8&I332&3*':3%&I%$BO:'&'$&/#8$@E,*&
gradec together with some parts of tomb architecture
;%$6& "2& B2,2$]2& E*'3& *2& ':3& @"113C- 5 or they were
relics of an older Roman temple situated at the top
of the hill 6 &]:*F:-&"FF$%8*2O&'$&3@*832F3-&:"8&"1%3"8C&
been inhabited in Prehistory.
/&2"%%$]&I%3"F:&*2&':3&E'$23&]"11&$;&':3&F*E'3%2-&
which was obviously intended to lower the level of
]"'3%-& *E& F%BF*"1& ;$%& ':3& 8*EFBEE*$2& $2& "& >$EE*I13&
background of the presence of both Late Medieval objects
in the water cistern. According to Rutar’s state-
632'&$2&':3&13@31&$;&]"'3%-&"E&]311&"E&':3&%3>$%'&;%$6&
QVmY& 83EF%*I*2O& ':3& F*E'3%2-& F$6>13'31C& ;*1138& ]*':&
83I%*E-&':3&*2'3%@32'*$2&*2'$&':3&]"11&:"8&>%$I"I1C&
I332&6"83&";'3%&`B'"%fE&@*E*'-&>%$I"I1C&"E&"&F$2E3quence
of treasure hunters’ activities at the end of the
QV th century which encouraged the first archeological
3aF"@"'*$2E&I3']332&QVSQ&"28&QVSX. 7 This explanation
is supported also by Riedl’s observation of the
opening in the northwestern corner of the water cistern
which he misinterpreted as an entrance into the
tower basement. 8 The question why would antiquar-
T" 7/)8*"O"G',J,="@A:S9"??."!O:L"G',J,="@AAT9"??."Q@KOQ@T9"J,E."Tf"TL"!O:.
!" 7/)8*"O"G',J,="@A:S9"?."B.
B" 78,0."N$%&12"M,E$/'/31,9"5W,'-!X32'(W%D!53*%3#%1'7%)!.'

]"%
K"& 0$0$13$!"& $=%"3#:3:!& !:;>L& 4$1':!&
RVe&H!L&/-&'"&0$4&.";(&-32(&I*(&ZVURek&=%"3-&K"-
%$43-&!>.:#&D1$2:3-#:L&3-&81:4$2&3$+3-H:&7D1(&V?(&
C:.-1$L&/-&8:&:3"/$!:%3$&$+-&$4&B%"3-/"&0%$*-&
$8*%-& /$3-H-L& -!"& 2& .'$%3#-& 0$1$2-H-& I:8*/$*:3&
0%:8:/(&A$&8%:4-3-&3"&$B:=&8*%"3:=&4$&42:=&*%:-
*#-3&4$1+-3:&0$*:/"&-.%".-*&+1:BL&/-&$B8:'"&0%--
B1-+3$&;:*%*-3$&I-%-3:&%:.-1"(&K"&:3-&8*%"3-&%:.--
1"&#:&2*$1;:3&!:4:3-3"8*&.3"/(&A%:0%$8*&B%"3-/&
8*-1"&S&0$&M"/:8=$**> W &$.3";>#:#$&%"2:3&.'$%3#-&
rob in navzdol razširjena kraka pravokotnega
0%:8:/"L&/-&$B1-/>#:*"&>81$;:3&80$43#-&%$B(&O$1'&
*%3L&/-&#:&$!$'$;"1&0%-#:*#:&%$;"#"&.&$B:!"&%$-
/"!"L& 8:& /$3;"& 8& 01$I;"*-!& '1"2-;:!& $2"13:&
$B1-/:(&i1"2-;L&/-&-!"&."$B1#:3:&%$B$2:L&#:&B-1&
3"&*%3&0%-*%#:3&.&."/$2-H$(&K"&8%:4-3-&'1"2-;"L&
/-&'"&1"=/$&$0%:4:1-!$&/$*&*-0&lRL 10 je vtisnjen
$/%"8&I*-%-=&I*-%-0:%:83-=&%$.:*(&
):;&.&E#4$28/:'"&'%"4H"&'1:4:&3"&/$3-;"8*$&
obliko rezila in njegov okrepljen presek sodi v
8/>0-3$&$%$+-#L&/-&8$&#-=&%".2-1-&/$*&$4'$2$%&3"&
spremembe v konstrukciji oklepov ob koncu
Re(&8*$1:*#"(&A$&.3";-13$8*-=&!:;"L&/-&#:&/1"8--
;:3&0%-!:%:/&0$4*-0"&q@X"L&4$!3:2"!$L&4"&#:&
B-1&-.4:1"3&2&4%>'-&0$1$2-H-&R\(&"1-&0%2-&;:*%*-3-&
15. stoletja. 11 Okvirno kronološko umestitev
0$40-%"#$&*>4-&:1:!:3*-&$/%"8"&3"&'1"2-;>L&/-&
80$!-3#"#$& 3"& 0%:4%*& !$*-2& /%-+"& .& B%"3-/$2&
!:;:2&-.&R\(&8*$1:*#"( RV &):4&':$'%"P8/$&-3&$B1--
/$23$&3"#B$1#&0$4$B3-!-&#:&!:;&-.&8*%>':&-
B1#"3-H:&3"4&A$40:;#$L&/-&#:&-!:1&4:13$&$=%"-
3#:3:&1:8:3:&01"*-H:&3$+3-H:( 13
;70417,7
H'%(@(;#+21*3':4(:64+.4(1("$%B(*$/2@'=I(
&B/(&4#+)(2627#4(B@(:64+21J(&4*'")B&(B&(
)2#BF%(
A%:8*-+3$&$%$+#:&-.&.B-%"13-/"&3"&E#4$28/:!&
'%"4H>&#:&:4-3-&2&H:1$*-&$=%"3#:3&2-*:I/-&!:;&8&
81$2:38/:'"&$.:!1#"L&3"#4:3&2&$/2-%>&"%=:$1$-
I/-=&-./$0"2"3#(&X.#:!3$8*&$4/%-*#"&0$3"."%#"&
!>.:#8/"&"3:/4$*"L&4"&8$&!:;&1:*"&RWZ\&0$motoma
objavili med gradivom iz barjanskega
$48:/"&B1#"3-H:L 14 &/-&#:&.&2:;&/$*&\Y&.3"3-!-&
9 Ewart Oakeshott, The Sword in the Age of Chivalry, London 1964.
10 Oakeshott 1964, str. 102–103, sl. 72, t. 30: b.
11 Oakeshott 1964, str. 63–65.
12 Oakeshott 1964, str. 128, t. 26: a–c; 27: a.
13" 7/)/8"7/)8*9"72+&2+'%"?8,3/&%'-%"?8/)/1$24),."h2&/-(/"'%-+D/"&"Z-*D$-%',=,9"&f"Podvodna
arheologija v Sloveniji, 1 (1982), t. 3: 273.
14" ;28,4"#20D%39"72+&2+'/"8%W,41%&/"&"N$2&/',-,9"&f"Podvodna arheologija v Sloveniji,
2 (1984), t. 15: 5.
148 ! V O J A Š K A Z G O D O V I N A
ians have chosen to stop digging and leave the sword
despite the lower level of water remains unanswered.
Sword
There is no trace of a scabbard on a completely
>%3E3%@38-&QUc&F6&1$2O&E]$%8-&9P*O.&U=&,3>'&IC&':3&
M"'*$2"1&!BE3B6&$;&N1$@32*"&B283%&W2@.&M$.&YUTQcm.&
5:3&I1"83-&]:*F:&3dB"11C&2"%%$]E&;%$6&':3&OB"%8&'$&
':3&E:"%>&'*>-&:"E&"&:3a"O$2"1&F%$EE&E3F'*$2&*2&':3&
B>>3%&:"1;.&_2&I$':&E*83E&$;&':3&I1"83&':3%3&*E&"&;B113%&
%B22*2O& 8$]2& *2& ':3& 6*8813-& F$@3%*2O& ']$& ':*%8E&
of its length and approximately a quarter of its
]*8':.&_23&E*83&$;&':3&I1"83&F$2'"*2E&"2&*21"*8&I%"EE&
6"%,& EC6I$1.& /& E*6>13& OB"%8-& 5C>3& GW& "FF$%8*2O&
'$&_",3E:$''- V &*E&F:"%"F'3%*+38&IC&"&E'%"*O:'&B>>3%&
edge and downward-widened sides of a rectangular
cross section forming a concave lower edge. A long
'"2O-& ]:*F:& 32"I138& "& E]$%8& '$& I3& :318& ]*':& I$':&
:"28E-&328E&]*':&"&;1"'&$@"1&>$6631&]*':&%$B2838&
edges which were riveted to the flange. The middle
$;&':3&>$6631-&]:*F:&F"2&I3&*832'*;*38&"E&'C>3&bQ- 10
contains an engraved ornament of four-leaf rosettes.
Due to its pointed blade and strengthened cross
E3F'*$2-&':3&E]$%8&;%$6&/#8$@E,*&O%"83F&I31$2OE&'$&
the group of weapons developed as a response to
changes in the construction of armour at the end of
the 13 th &F32'B%C.&0:"%"F'3%*E'*FE&$;&':3&E]$%8-&]:*F:&
*E&"&'C>*F"1&3a"6>13&$;&"&EBI'C>3&$;&sGW"-&>%$@3&*'&
was made in the second half of the 14 th century or in
the first quarter of the 15 th century. 11 This chronological
placement is supported also by ornament elements
on the pommel which are reminiscent of a
>3%;$%"'38& F%BF*;*a-& "& 6$'*;& BE38& $2& E]$%8& OB"%8E&
from the 14 th century. QU &01$E31C&%31"'38&'$&':*E&E]$%8-&
*2&'3%6E&$;&*'E&O3$O%">:*F"1&1$F"'*$2&"28&E:">3-&*E&"&
very similar sword found in the Ljubljanica river bed
23"%&H$8>3A-&]*':&>"%'*"11C&>%3E3%@38&]$$832&E*83E&
of its scabbard. 13
Discussion
The sword from Ajdovski gradec in view of
finds of weapons recovered from castles,
settlements and battlefields
The prestigious weapon from the water cistern
at Ajdovski gradec is the only completely preserved
9 Ewart Oakeshott, The Sword in the Age of Chivalry, London 1964.
10 Oakeshott 1964, pp. 102–103, fig. 72, pl. 30: b.
11 Oakeshott 1964, pp. 63–65.
12 Oakeshott 1964, pp. 128, pl. 26: a–c; 27: a.
13" 7/)/8" 7/)8*9" 72+&2+'%" ?8,3/&%'-%" ?8/)/1$24),." h2&/-(/" '%-+D/" &" Z-*D$-%',=,9" ,':
Podvodna arheologija v Sloveniji, 1 (1982), pl. 3: 273.

3"#4B"!-& 3:& 1:& $8%:43#-& 8/1$0& !:;:2& RR(_RY(&
8*$1:*#"&0%-&3"8L&*:!2:;&*>4-&:3"&$4&0$!:!B-
3:#I-=& .B-%/& :2%$08/:'"& 2-8$/:'"& -3& 0$.3:'"&
srednjega veka. 15 &MH:3-&F(&M"/:8=$**"L&4"&2:;&
/$*& ZT& $48*$*/$2& 8%:43#:2:I/-=& !:;:2& -.2-%"&
-.&%:/L&#:.:%&-3&!$;2-%-#L 16 povsem ustreza tudi
%".!:%#:& !:4& 3"#4-I;3-!-& /$3*:/8*-& !:;:2& .&
$.:!1#"&D1$2:3-#:&-3&8:2:%$."=$43:&l%2"I/:( 17
c0$I*:2"#$;& 0$'$8*$& 4-"!:*%"13$& %".1-;3:&
0$'$#:& ."& $=%"3-*:2& !"*:%-"1$2& 3"& 8>=$.:!-
8/-=& 3"#4-I;-=& -3& 2& !$/%-=& $/$1#-=& "B8$1>*3"&
0%:21"4"&$%$+#"&-.&2$4:&3"&0%2-&0$'1:4&3-*-&3:&
0%:8:3:;"(& M;-*3"& #:& .1"8*-& 0%-& 2%:43:#I-=& -3&
B$1#:&$=%"3#:3-=&/$8-=&$%$+#"&-3&."I;-*3:&$0%:-
!:L&/$*&8$&!:;-&-3&;:1"4:b&$8*-&-.8*%:1/$2L&$%$+-
#"&3"&4%$'>L&8:/-%:&-3&/$3#:3-I/"&$0%:!"&0"&8$&
zastopani bolj enakomerno.
K"#4B:&$%$+#"&.&'%"4$2&-3&3"8:1B-3&$B8:'"#$&
."2%+:3:&0%:4!:*:&-.&#"%/$2L&3"8>*-#&-3&$40"-
43-=&#"!L&3:0%-!:%3$&%:4/:#I:&-3&"%=:$1$I/$&
81"B$&$0%-#:!1#-2:&4:0$#:&*:%&0%:4!:*:L&/-&#-=&
'1:4:&3"&3"#4-I;3:&/$3*:/8*:&1"=/$&0$2:+:!$&
s spopadi in obleganji. Na Slovenskem je po-
.3"2"3#:&0%2-=&42:=&8/1$0$2&'%"4-2"&$!:#:3$&
3"& 8-8*:!"*-;3$& %".-8/"3:& 4:1:& 3"#4-I;L& /-& 8$&
0%"2-1$!"&1:&0$*%4-1-&0%-;"/$2"3$&P>3/H-$3"1-
3$&."8*$0"3$8*&$%$+#"&-3&8*$03#$&3#:'$2:&$=%"-
3#:3$8*-(&):4&3"#4B"!-&.&1$/"H-#L&/$*&8$&A>8*-&
'%"4& 3"4& 9'$%3#$& &2&6"!3-/>L RW sklopi predmetov z ob-
!$;#"&'%"4>&3"&i%"4-I;>&3"4&O%"'$L VT Starega
15" e20%V"h%D/8E2-9"@B323/)%'!-1#%!-2)$%&).)$13& ]3">$2E-& "a3E& "28& F"@alry
equipment are more equally represented.
Weapons found in castles and settlements include
8*EF"%838&$I#3F'E&%3F$@3%38&;%$6&8*'F:3E-&%$"8&63'"1&
"28&%3;BE3&>*'E-&"E&]311&"E&6BF:&%"%3%&"28&"%F:3$1$O-
*F"11C&13EE&'"2O*I13&:$"%8E&"28&$I#3F'E-&]:*F:-&I"E38&
$2&':3*%&1$F"'*$2&$;&8*EF$@3%C-&F$B18&I3&%31"'38&'$&32gagements
and sieges. In Slovenia the understanding
of the first two sets of objects is limited to systemati-
F"11C&3a>1$%38&>"%'E&$;&':3&E*'3E&]:*F:-&*2&>%*2F*>13-&
confirm the expected functional representation of the
]3">$2E-&"E&]311&"E&':3&13@31&$;&':3*%&>%3E3%@"'*$2.&
Among the objects discovered in locations such as
HBE'*& O%"8& "I$@3& ?O$%2#"& D*>2*F"-& ?O$%2#*& E'$1>& "'&
7%"2F31#&"I$@3&â,$;#"&D$,"-&N'"%*&O%"8&*2&031#3&"28&
N'"%*& O%"8& "I$@3& H$8I$A#3& "28& ':3& 83E$1"'38& '$]2&
_'$,&>%*&4$I%"@*-&>%$#3F'*13&>$*2'E&>%3@"*1-&;$11$]38&
IC&6$B2'E&"28&EF"II"%8&F:">3E-&"E&]311&"E&;%"O632'E&
of armour plates and chain-mail - mostly objects
14" ;28,4"#20D%39"72+&2+'/"8%W,41%&/"&"N$2&/',-,9",'f Podvodna arheologija v Sloveniji,
2 (1984), pl. 15: 5.
15" e20%V"h%D/8E2-9"@B323/)%'!-1#%!-2)$%&).)

'%"4>&0%-&C$'"*H>&3"4&h:1-!1#"!- VR in Starega
'%"4>&D!1:43-/L&2&/"*:%:!&8$&!:4&-./$0"2"-
3#-&2&ST(&1:*-=&0%:#I3#:'"&8*$1:*#"&-3&0$.3:#I-!&
m;-I;:3#:!n& %>I:2-3& !:4& 4%>'-!& 3"1:*:1-& 3"&
$8*-&8>1-H&-3&0>I;-HL&3$+:&-3&$8*%$':( VV
A%-.$%-I;"&$B1:'"3#&8$&0$&3"2"4-&0%:0$.3"3"&
2&/$32$1>*-=&.3";-13-=&3"#4B&-.&$/$1-H:&'%"4$2L&
/-&8$&B-1:&0%"2-1$!"&0%-4$B1#:3:&3:8*%$/$23$L&
/"%&/%3-&H:1$2-*$8*&"%=:$1$I/:'"&/$3*:/8*"&-3&
$3:!$'$;"&0$.3:#I-&I*>4-#&0$*:/"&B-*/&-3&B$#3:&
%".0$%:4-*2:&8$4:1>#$;-=&2$#8/"(&@:;&0>I;-;3-=&
$8*-&8&*%3"8*-!-&-3&*>1"8*-!-&3"8"4-I;-L&8>1-;3:&
$8*-&*:%&4%>':&3"#4B:L&/-&B-&#-=&1"=/$&0$'$#3$&
0$2:."1-&.&$B1:'"3#:!L&#:&.3"3-=&8&0$B$;-#&D*"rega
gradu nad Uncem (Hasberg?L Ve & 2& B$#3-=&
$/$1-I;-3"=&0"&8$&!$%4"&/$3;"1-&2&.:!1#-&*>4-&
'1"2-;&!:;"&-.&R\(&"1-&RY(&8*$1:*#"L&0>I;-;3:&$8*-&
-3& /"2:1#& $/1:0"L& 3"#4:3-& 0%-& '%"4>& Lichtenberg.
V\
!3A&+&/#8$@E,3O"&O%"8F"&2"8&G%"2#36
i1:4:&3"&"%=:$1$I/:&-./>I3#:&.&'%"#8/-=&1$-
/"H-#&-3&B$#-I;&*$%:#&3-&0%-;"/$2"*-&80:/*"/>1"%-
3-=& 3"#4B& $%$+#"& -3& 2$#"I/:& $0%:!:L& %".:3& 2&
.:1$&%:4/-=&0%-!:%-=L&/#:%&8$&23$2-;3$&>0$%"-
B$L&%:H-/1"+$&$.(&01:3#:3#:&0%:0%:;:2"1:&0$8:B-
3:&$/$1-I;-3:L&0$&3"2"4-&1:'"&3"&*:+/$&4$8*$-
03-=&"1-&8/%-*-=&/%"#-=(&K"&*:#&*$;/-&8:&3"#4B:&
-.&'%"#8/-=&2$43#"/$2 VY &0%:/%-2"#$&.&$%$+#:!&-.&
2$4$*$/$2L&#:.:%&-3&!$;2-%-#L&;:0%"2&8$&%".1$'-&
."&3#-=$2&0$#"2&2&*:!&"1-&$3:!&/$3*:/8*>&1"=-
/$&B-8*2:3$&4%>'";3-(
H'%B(B@(12+',(&43"#$%#'(4"B(&4='6&4(
2+D$#BD'1K
Neposredno povezavo med vodnimi najdba-
!-&$%$+#"&-3&B-*/"!-&$B&%:/"=&$.(&#:.:%-=&"1-&3"&
(2008), str. 305–323.
21" H8%E2"N&2$-(%19"72$2'%";,)/'=9"a%'1%"v4)/',39"e,02)/-"G',J,=9"e20%V"h%D/8E2-9"`,+%"
N)%8/9"h/&%"e8%0?*V"k8/$9"h2&2"E8%+,&2"&"U8>/2$2(1/0"2++/$1*"h%82+'/E%"0*W/-%"
v Ljubljani (pridobljeno v letih od 1987 do 1993), v: Varstvo spomenikov, 36 (1997),
str. 266, t. 21.
22 Marijan Slabe, Stari grad nad Smlednikom, v: Varstvo spomenikov, 13–14 (1970),
str. 178; isti, Smlednik, v: Varstvo spomenikov, 25 (1983), str. 266–271.
23" a%'/W"a."u&%-'=/89"Sulice, sekire, helebarde, Logatec 2008, str. 130.
24" a%'/W"a."u&%-'=/89"V)7'4!B3$#,#4!%3/', Logatec 2007, str. 119.
25" h?8."24),"?*(3,=",'"+8*E2"282V-/",W"/'/"2+"+&/>"=,4)/8'"'%"E8%+*"G2W$2&"82D."#$."
;/%)8,3/"qD2'%"e810%'9"]%D8,W,2";8/44%'9"k82V-/"W"E8%+*"G2W$2&"82D9"&f"Vojske,
323/&)!'%!612$B)%'!-'-1)A'!.!53-37&6 (ur. Karla Kofol), Tolmin 2008, str. 49–60.
150 ! V O J A Š K A Z G O D O V I N A
which were less suitable for reworking or recycling. 18
W'&*E&"1E$&F13"%&':"'&':3&"6$B2'&$;&]3">$2E-&%3O"%8less
of a possible military-defence character of strong
:$BE3E&"28&3"%1C&E:31138&F"E'13E-&8$3E&2$'&E'"28&$B'&
>%$>$%'*$2"11C& "6$2O& $':3%& 63'"1& $I#3F'E-& ]:*F:&
*E&F$2;*%638&IC&;*28E&"'&!"1*&O%"8&*2&7"62*,- QV as
well as by sets of objects discovered in the area of
':3&F"E'13&"'&K%"8*JA3&"I$@3&4%"O"- US Stari grad near
`$O"'3F& "I$@3& n31*61#3 UQ and Stari grad Smlednik.
During the excavations at Stari grad Smlednik in the
QVRSE&"28&"1E$&8B%*2O&':3&EBIE3dB32'&lF13"%*2OEf&$;&
':3&83I%*E-&"6$2O&$':3%&':*2OE-&E>3"%:3"8E&"28&"%-
%$]:3"8E-& "E& ]311& "E& ,2*@3E& "28& E>B%E UU were also
found.
N*3O3&1$F"'*$2E&"%3&BEB"11C&F:"%"F'3%*+38&IC&E3'E&
of typical objects discovered in the surroundings of
F"E'13E-& BEB"11C& %3F$@3%38& B2>%$;3EE*$2"11C-& ]:*F:&
limits the integrity of the archeological context and
The sword from Ajdovski gradec above Vranje.
hinders the subsequent studies of battles and battle
formations of participating armies. A large number
$;& "%%$]:3"8E& ]*':& "& '"2O38& $%& E$F,3'38& E:";'-&
E>3"%:3"8E& "28& $':3%& $I#3F'E-& ]:*F:& F$B18& F$28*-
'*$2"11C& I3& %31"'38& '$& ':3& E*3O3-& "%3& ,2$]2& '$& :"@3&
been found on the slopes of Stari grad above Unec
(Hasberg). Uc During combat a sword pommel from
the 14 th or 15 th &F32'B%C-&"%%$]:3"8E&"28&"&1"2F3&%3E'-&
8*EF$@3%38&23"%&':3&0"E'13&D*F:'32I3%O- U[ might have
entered the ground.
Considering archeological experience from cas-
'13E&"28&I"''13;*318E-&E>3F'"FB1"%&;*28*2OE&$;&]3">$2E&
and military equipment can be expected only in very
%"%3& F"E3E-& ]:3%3& ':3& %336>1$C632'-& %3FCF1*2O& $%&
plundering were made impossible by specific circum-
E'"2F3E-& BEB"11C& "& O3$O%">:*F"1& >$E*'*$2& $2& :*O:1C&
18" e20%V"Z%W%89"@B323/'1).!'%!612$B)%)!-126(162)!.!-2)$%&)A!.)(6!P!#20)3,3

3#-= VS &0%-&4:1>&$4/%-*-=&!:;:2&."3-/"&0$*%#:3"&
3"2.$;3$8*& $8*"3/$2& 3$+3-HL& /-& 8:& 0$& 3"2"4-&
$=%"3-#$& 1:& 8& 81:4$2-& 1:8:3-=& 01"*-HL& %:4/:#:& 8&
0%-%#"2:3-!-&/$3-;3-/-L&>8*#-&-3&%$B3-!-&$/$2-(&
i1:4:& 3"& 0%:21"4>#$;$& >0$%"B$& 3:$B8*$#3-=&
materialov in spremenljive pogoje po odlo-
+-*2-& 2& %:;3-=& 8*%>'"=& 1"=/$& 8/1:0"!$L& 4"& #:&
I*:2-1$&!:;:2L&0$*$01#:3-=&8/>0"#&.&3$+3-H"!-L&
."3:81#-2$&2:;#:&$4&80$%$;:3:'"( Vk Ta dejavnik
B-&B-1$&."3-!-2$&$0".$2"*-&0%-&8:4!-=&!:;-=L&
$4/%-*-=&8/>0"#&.&4%>'-!&$%$+#:!&-3&0%:4!:ti
iz 10. in 11. stoletja med podvodnimi raz-
-8/"2"!-& 42:=& 1:8:3-=& !$8*$2+:2L& /-&
sta vodila k otoški utrdbi na jezeru
Lednica (_E'%ã]&D382*F,*?L&%:.-4:3H-&
0%2-=&0$1#8/-=&21"4"%#:2(&K"#4B:&.&#:-
.:%8/:'"& 43"& 2& $/$1-H-& !$8*3-=& '1"2L&
/-&2/1#>;>#:#$&I:&;:1"4$L&2:%-+3$&8%"#-
H$L&RVR&8:/-%&-3&SY&8>1-;3-=&$8*-&*:%&
1:!:+:L&!1-38/:&/"!3:L&42"&28:Bnika
iz jelenjega rogovja ter lese-
3:& ."#:!"1/:L& +1-H:& -3& /%$+3-/:L&
dopolnjuje odkritje skeletov ko-
3#"&-3&!$+"L&2&B1-+-3-&/"*:%-=&8$&
odkrili še dve bronasti skledi sesta-
21#-2:&*:=*3-H:(&M+'"3:&/$38*%>/H-#8/:&:1:!:3-
*:&!$8*$2&*:%&1:8:3-=&*$0$%-I;&8:/-%&-3&4%+"#:2&
sulic raziskovalci razlagajo kot dokaze napada
2$#8/:&;:I/:'"&/3:."&,%.:*g8â"G"&1:*"&RTeZ( VZ
F4:3&$4&%:4/-=&"%=:$1$I/-=&/$3*:/8*$2L&/-&
'"& #:& !$'$;:& 0$2:.$2"*-& .& 3:8%:;$& 0%-& 01$2-
B-L& #:& .3"3$& $4/%-*#:& 8/>0/"& ZT& '$1-=& !:;:2&
iz prve polovice 15. stoletja v reki Dordogne
0%-& `"8*-11$3>& 1:*"& RWkeL& /-& '"& %".1"'"#$& /$*&
-.'>B1#:3& P%"3H$8/-& 01:3& .& B1-+3#:'"& 0%-.$%--
I;"&B-*/:&1:*"&R\Ye( VW &6$*&3"/1#>;3$&-.'>B1#:3:&
0%:4!:*:&#:&!$'$;:&$B%"23"2"*-&*>4-&$%$+#:&-.&
%:;3-=&0%-8*"3-I;L&!:4&4%>'-!&!:;L&scramasax
26 Walter Torbrügge, Vor- und Frühgeschichtliche Flußfunde. Zur Ordnung und Bestimmung
einer Denkmälergruppe, v: Bericht der Römisch-Germanischen Kommission,
51–52 (1972), str. 100–101, 115.
27 Gaspari 2008.
28 Gerard Wilke, Unterwasserarchäologie in polnischen Flüssen und Seen, v: Skyllis.
Zeitschrift für Unterwasserarchäologie, 2/1 (1999), str. 53–56, sl. 10–12; Andrzej
Kola, Gerard Wilke, Mosty sprzed tysiaca lat. Archeologiczne badania podwodne
rezydencji pierwszych Piastów na Ostrowie Lednickim, Torun 2000.
29 Oakeshott 1991, str. 11.
inaccessible or hidden locations. At this point objects
recovered from castle wells UX coincide with weapons
8*EF$@3%38& *2& ]"'3%F$B%E3E-& 1",3E& "28& 6"%E:3E-& "1though
the reasons for their presence in this or other
contexts can be completely different.
Swords in the Water: Coincidence or a
Deliberate Act?
A direct connection between weapons discovered
in the waters and battles near or in rivers or lakes UR
8$3E&2$'&3a*E'&;$%&"&>"%'&$;&':3&E]$%8E&;$B28-&]:*F:&
*E&>%$@38&IC&':3&>%3E32F3&$;&EF"II"%8E-&$;&]:*F:&$21C&
%36"*2E&$;&]$$832&E*83&>1"'3E&"%3&BEB"11C&>%3E3%@38-&
$%&6$%3&%"%31C-&6$B2'E&"28&E*83Z6$B2'E-&%BE'38&$2'$&
the blades. With regard to the predominant usage
of non-resistant materials and changeable conditions
in river beds it can be assumed that the actual
number of swords which sank together with
their scabbards is definitely higher than the
number known. Um It would be of special interest
to address this factor in relation with sev-
32&E]$%8E-&;$B28&'$O3':3%&]*':&$':3%&]3">$2E&"28&
objects from the 10 th and 11 th centuries during the
underwater research of two wooden bridges leading
'$&"&*E1"28&;$%'*;*F"'*$2&$2&':3&1",3&D382*F"&9_E'%ã]&
Lednicki) the residence of the first Polish rulers.
The collection of objects found at the bottom of the
1",3& 23"%& I%*8O3:3"8E-& ]:*F:& *2F1B83E& "& :3163'-& "&
6"*1&E:*%'-&QUQ&"a3E&"28&QRX&E>3"%:3"8E-&"E&]311&"E&
>1$BO:E:"%3E-& 6*11E'$23E-& ']$& F:3E'E& 6"83& $;& 833%&
"2'13%E-&]$$832&1"813E-&E>$$2E&"28&>1"'3E-&*E&EB>>13mented
by a discovery of a skeleton of a horse and
6"2&*2&':3&@*F*2*'C&$;&]:$6&']$&I%$2+3&I$]1E&I3longing
to a weighing scale were also found. Burned
F$2E'%BF'*$2&313632'E&$;&I%*8O3E-&]$$832&"a3&:31@3E&
and spear handles are considered as evidence of the
"''"F,-&F"%%*38&$B'&IC&':3&"%6C&$;&':3&0+3F:&>%*2F3&
)%+3'CEå"]&*2&QScY. UY
_23&$;&':3&%"%3&"%F:3$1$O*F"1&F$2'3a'E&]:*F:&F$B18&
be related to a boat accident is a famous discovery
25 For example, arrowheads and other weapons from one of the two cisterns at the
=%4)$/"G2W$2&"/+E/."N//";/%)8,3/"qD2'%"e810%'9"]%D8,W,2";8/44%'9"k82V-/"W"E8%+*"
Kozlov rob, in: R3&-()4!323/&)!'%!612$B)%'!-'-1)A'!.!53-37&6 (ed. Karla Kofol), Tolmin
2008, pp. 49–60.
26 Walter Torbrügge, Vor- und Frühgeschichtliche Flußfunde. Zur Ordnung und Bestimmung
einer Denkmälergruppe, v: Bericht der Römisch-Germanischen Kommission,
51–52 (1972), pp. 100–101, 115.
27 Gaspari 2008.
28 Gerard Wilke, Unterwasserarchäologie in polnischen Flüssen und Seen, in: Skyllis.
Zeitschrift für Unterwasserarchäologie, 2/1 (1999), pp. 53–56, fig. 10–12.
M I L I T A R Y H I S T O R Y ! 151

*:%&2:;&8:/-%&-3&8>1-;3-=&$8*-&-.&W(&8*$1:*#"L&$4-
/%-*$& !:4& 0$42$43-!-& "%=:$1$I/-!-& %".-8/"-
2"!-& %:/:& `="%:3*:& 0%-& 5"-11:B$>%'>& 2& 1:*-=&
VTTR_VTTY( 30 Zanesljiv skandinavski izvor naj-
4:3-=&82-3;:3-=&>*:+-&2&$B1-/-&4%"//"%#"L&8:/-%&
-3& 8%:B%3:'"& $B%$;/"& $B& >0$I*:2"3#>& 0-83-=&
2-%$2&$&0$3"21#"#$;-=&8:&%$0"%8/-=&0$=$4-=&8:-
2:%3#"/$2&-3&-!:38/:&8$.2$;3$8*-&5"-11:B$>%'"&
z dansko utrdbo Trelleborg&$!$'$;"#$&8/1:0"nje
o morebitnem obstoju vikinške baze.
@&3"80%$*#>&.&$%$+#:!&-.&2$4$*$/$2&2&B1-+-3-&
3"8:1B-3&"1-&!:8*&>8*"1#:3-=&0%:=$4$2L 31 kjer je
!$+3$8*&3"/1#>;3:&-.'>B:&%:"13"L&0"&8&*:!&3-&
!$'$;:& %"H-$3"13$& 0$#"83-*-& 3"#4B& -.& $4!"-
/3#:3-=& 4:1$2& %:;3-=& *$/$2& -3& !"3#I-=& 2$4"L&
3:0%-!:%3-=& ."& 01$2B$( eV & A$8"!-;3:& 3"#4B:&
!:;:2& -.& *"/I3-=& !:8*& *2$%-#$& 8"!$82$#& /$3-
*:/8*&-3&#-=&#:&!$'$;:&.&2:;#$&"1-&!"3#I$&."3:-
81#-2$8*#$&%".1"'"*-&/$*&/"."1H:&3"!:%3-=&3:0$-
2%"*3-=&-34-2-4>"13-=&4:#"3#(&
D$4:;&0$&0$2:4"3:!&0";&3:&!$%:&B-*-&42$-
!"L&4"&#:&8%:43#:2:I/-&!:;&-.&E#4$28/:'"&'%"4ca
v napol zasut in z vodo napolnjen zbiralnik
0%-I:1& ."%"4-& ."2:8*3:& $41$;-*2:L 33 & 0%-& ;:!:%&
.%"2:3&1:+:;"&/:%"!-;3"&0$8$4"&$0$."%#"&3"&
skupno deponiranje. Za pojasnitev ozadja tega
$4/%-*#"& #:& /1#>;3"& $0>8*:1$8*& 1$/"H-#:L& /-& 2&
;"8>&$41$+-*2:&3-&B-1"&$B1#>4:3"&+:&2:;&8*$&1:*(&
V tem se obravnavana najdba bistveno razliku-
#:&$4&P>3/H-$3"13:'"&$%$+#"L&/-&#:&B-1$&."%"4-&
/"/%I3:'"&/$1-&%".1$'"&+:&4:0$3-%"3$&$.(&$4-
2%+:3$&2&'%"#8/:&2$43#"/: 34 ali skrito v stene
8*"3$2"3#8/-=&$B#:/*$2( 35
A%2"& !-8:1L& /-& 8:& >*%3:& $B& 3"2:4:3-=& $/$-
1-I;-3"=L& #:L& 4"& '%:& ."& $%$+#:L& /-& '"& #:& ."43#-&
1"8*3-/&8/%-1&2&2$43$&#"!$&.&3"!:3$!L&4"&'"&
23$2-;&0%-4$B-L&/$*&*$&-.="#"&-.&$/$1-I;-3&3"#4be
dragocenega kovinskega posodja in kipov
*:%& +:1:.3:'"& $%$4#"& -.& $B4$B#"& ':%!"38/-=&
30" U'',/"H*02')9"a/%'6]8%'z2,4"F%8,2)),9"F,=>/$"7,=>2'9"Z%"M>%8/')/"{"e%,$$/D2*8E6
728)" +oc'&%*j" _]8%'=/9" +l?." H/" M>%8/')/6F%8,),0/bf" ?8/0,/84" 8l4*$)%)4" +o*'/"
?824?/=),2'" )>l0%),[*/" 4*D%[*%),[*/9" &f" Archäologisches Korrespondenzblatt,
33 (2003), str. 591–592.
31" h%"?8,0/8"0/3"),?%"s`v%"W"2D023-%"?8/E%W%"&"M/),',"?8,"e8,$-*."#$."U')/"F,$2(/&,i9"
Arheološka topografija Cetine, Split 1998, str. 291, sl. 485.
32 Torbrügge 1972, str. 68–69; Oakeshott 1991, str. 3; Gaspari 2008.
33" 5,?2)/),3'%"02V'24)"?2&/W%&/"0/+"?24/E20"&"4)/'29"1,"-/"W',V%$"&2+'2"E$%+,'2"
&"WD,8%$',1*9",'"2+$2V,)&,-2"2D/>"?8/+0/)2&"&")%12"?8,?8%&$-/'"?824)28"-/"E$/+/"'%"
?8/+$%E%'2"4)%824)"&12?%"0%'-"&/8-/)'%."Y%"W%3%4'2"418,&%$,(3/"2D/>"?8/+0/)2&"
%$,"=/$2"18%)12)8%-'2"D,&%'-/"4/"W+,"&$%V/'"?824)28"?2&4/0"'/*4)8/W/'9")*+,"3/"*?2-
()/&%02"?20%'-1%'-/"?8,0/8',>"'%8%&',>"W%&/),(3"&"212$,=,.
34" 7%8"V/$/W',>"1$2D*12&",W"WD,8%$',1%"'%"E8%+*"v''/8-*&%$)%"&"u&,=,",'",W"&2+'-%1%"'%"
gradu Madeln. Gl. Hugo Schneider, Zwei Helme aus der Burgruine Innerjuvalta, v:
Waffen- und Kostümkunde, 28/1 (1986), str. 23–34.
35 F/3",W">,(/"&"Z,'W*9"'%-+/'"W%"$/4/',0"2?%V/0",W"@T."4)2$/)-%"_k%1/4>2))"@AA@9"4)8."Sb.
152 ! V O J A Š K A Z G O D O V I N A
of a set of 80 bare swords from the first half of the
15 th &F32'B%C-&%3F$@3%38&;%$6&':3&%*@3%&4$%8$O23&23"%&
0"E'*11$2&*2&QVmc.&5:3E3&E]$%8E&"%3&F$2E*83%38&'$&I3&"&
lost French loot from a nearby battle which took place
in 1453. UV Also the weapons from river ports which
*2F1B83&"&E]$%8-&"&EF%"6"E"a-&"E&]311&"E&E3@3%"1&"a3E&
"28&E>3"%:3"8E&;%$6&':3&V th &F32'B%C-&8*EF$@3%38&8B%ing
underwater explorations of the river Charente
23"%& 5"*113I$B%O& ;%$6& USSQ& '$& USSX- 30 can also be
considered as accidentally lost objects. Considering the
written sources on recurring raids of Northern warri-
$%E-&"E&]311&"E&"&E*6*1"%*'C&I3']332&2"63E&$;&"&'$]2&
5"*113I$B%O& "28& "& 4"2*E:& ;$%'*;*F"'*$2& 5%3113I$%O-& "&
confirmed Scandinavian origin of lead weights shaped
1*,3&"&8%",,"%-&"a3E&"28&"&E*1@3%&%*2O&6",3&BE&]$283%&
about the possible existence of a Viking base.
Unlike the weapons from watercourses near settlements
or places of river-crossings 31 where the pos-
E*I*1*'C&$;&"FF*832'"1&1$EE&*E&%3"1*E'*F-&EBF:&3a>1"2"tion
is not rational for the objects recovered from
%36$'3&>"%'E&$;&%*@3%E&"28&E6"113%&]"'3%E-&B2EB*'"I13&
for navigation. cU Individual finds of swords at such
>1"F3E&;$%6&':3*%&$]2&F$2'3a'&"28&F"2&I3-&6$%3&$%&
13EE& %31*"I1C-& F$2E*83%38& "E& *28*F"'$%E& $;& 831*I3%"'3-&
individual and irreversible actions.
Considering all this there is no doubt that the
presence of the medieval sword from Ajdovski gradec
*2&':3&]"'3%&F*E'3%2-&:"1;&]"C&;*1138&]*':&%B*2E&"28&
F$6>13'31C& ;B11& $;& ]"'3%-& *E& "& F$2E3dB32F3& $;& "& 83-
1*I3%"'3& 83F*E*$2- 33 & /& F3%"6*F& I$]1-& ;$B28& 23a'& '$&
*'-& *E& >%$$;& ':"'& ':3& ']$& $I#3F'E& :"8& I332& >%$I"I1C&
deposited together. A key to the explanation of this
;*28&*E&':3&83E$1"'3&1$F"'*$2&]:*F:-&"'&':3&'*63&$;&':3&
83>$E*'*$2-&:"8&2$'&I332&*2:"I*'38&;$%&E3@3%"1&:B2dreds
of years. In this aspect the find in question sub-
E'"2'*"11C&8*;;3%E&;%$6&':3&;B2F'*$2"1&]3">$2E&]:*F:-&
;$%&]:"'3@3%&%3"E$2-&:"8&"1%3"8C&I332&83>$E*'38&$%&
thrown into castle wells 34 or hidden into the walls of
residential buildings. 35
29 Oakeshott 1991, p. 11.
30" U'',/"H*02')9"a/%'6]8%'z2,4"F%8,2)),9"F,=>/$"7,=>2'9"Z%"M>%8/')/"{"e%,$$/D2*8E6
728)"+oc'&%*j"_]8%'=/9"+l?."H/"M>%8/')/6F%8,),0/bf"?8/0,/84"8l4*$)%)4"+o*'/"?82-
4?/=),2'")>l0%),[*/"4*D%[*%),[*/9",'f"Archäologisches Korrespondenzblatt, 33
(2003), pp. 591–592.
31 For example a sword of a Type XVIa from the area of the ford in Cetina near Trilj. See
U')/"F,$2(/&,i9"Arheološka topografija Cetine, Split 1998, p. 291, fig. 485.
32 Torbrügge 1972, pp. 68–69; Oakeshott 1991, p. 3; Gaspari 2008.
33 A hypothetical possibility of the connection between the intervention into the wall,
which lowered the level of water in the cistern and the deposition of both objects
in such a prepared place is, according to the suggested age of the deposition,
less plausible. A humid place is completely inappropriate for a temporary hiding of
both objects or even for a short stay, even if we consider a lack of suitable natural
shelters in the vicinity.
34 A pair of kettle hats from a cistern at the castle Innerjuvalta in Switzerland and
from a well at the castle Madeln. See Hugo Schneider, Zwei Helme aus der Burgruine
Innerjuvalta, in: Waffen- und Kostümkunde, 28/1 (1986), pp. 23–34.
35 A sword from a house in Linz from the 14th century, found behind the wooden
panelling (Oakeshott 1991, p. 8).

20"4$2& 2& e(& 8*$1:*#>& 3(& I*(L& /-& 8$& B-1-& 2& 42:=&
!%:+"=& 80>I;:3-& 3"& 43$& 2$43#"/"& 2& /"8*:1>&
C"-3"H=[,>H=&3"&.'$%3#:':%!"38/$[%:H-#8/:!&
limesu. 36 V obravnavanem primeru bi bil zara-
4-&1"+#:'"&42-'"&!:;&1"=/$&B$4-8-&0%-2:."3&.&
2%2-H$L&/-&#:&0$&4:13:!&>0"4>&2$43:&'1"4-3:&
0%$0"41"b& 3:0%-#:*:3L& "& '1:4:& 3"& !"#=3$& '1$bino
povsem izvedljiv pa bi bil tudi potop na
4"=(
K"& 4%>'-& 8*%"3-& 8-& *:!";3$& 2$43$& #"!$& 2&
8*"%$4"23-& 3"8:1B-3-& .1"=/"& 0%:48*"21#"!$&
/$*&0%$8*$%&%-*>"13:&4"%-*2:&!:;"L&$%$+#"L&/-&#:&
imelo od iznajdbe v srednji bronasti dobi naprej
poudarjen statusni in simbolni pomen. 37
6$*&/"+:#$&I*:2-13:&3"#4B:&-3&/$!01:/8-&3"#4B&
-.&2$4$*$/$2L&#:.:%&-3&!$;2-%-#&."=$43:&Q2-H:L&
2.=$43:&N%"3H-#:L&80$43#:'"&A$%:3#"&-3&B%-*"3-
8/:'"&$*$;#"L&#:&B-1$&%-*>"13$&0$*"01#"3#:&$%$+#"&
2&!1"#I-&+:1:.3-&4$B-&-3&%-!8/:!&$B4$B#>&%".širjeno
predvsem v bojevniškem okolju kelt-
8/$[':%!"38/:&4%>+B:( 38 &MB-;"#L&/-&0%"/*-;3$&
0$!:3-& 3:0$0%"21#-2$& $3:80$8$B-*:2L& 1"=/$&
0%-!:%#"!$& 8& 0%"/8$& 8:+-'"3#"& -3& >3-;:2"3#"&
$%$+#"&2&$/2-%>&0$'%:B3:'"&$B%:4#"&"1-&%".$-
B:I"3#"&0$I/$4$2"3-=&!:;:2L&;:1"4L&I;-*$2&-3&
8>1-;3-=&$8*-&3"&/>1*3-=&!:8*-=&0$&2.$%>&8%:4$zemskega
tropaeuma. eW & @& D/"34-3"2-#-& 1"=/$&
masovnemu darovanju vojaške opreme sledi-
!$& $4& !1"#I:& 0%:4%-!8/:& +:1:.3:& 4$B:& 0%:/&
cesarskega obdobja in preseljevanja ljudstev
4$&RR(&8*$1:*#"L&/"!$%&8$4-#$&/$!01:/8-&0%:*:-
+3$&8>1-;3-=&$8*-&-3&4%>':'"&$%$+#"&-.&!$;2-%-#&
in barij severnega Gotlanda. 40 &A%-&2:;#-=&8/1$-
0-=& 2$43-=& 3"#4B& $%$+#"& '%:& 3"#2:%#:*3:#:& ."&
81:4$2:&8/>0-38/-=&4"%-*:2&2&$/2-%>&H:%:!$3-#&
0$&2$#3-=&0$=$4-=L&0$8"!-;3$&3"#4:3-&!:;-&0"&
8$& !$%4"& 0$2:."3-& .& -34-2-4>"13-!-& 4:#"3#-L&
30%(&4"%$2"3#:!&$%$+#"&0$%"+:3:'"&3"80%$*3-ka
v okviru rite de passage ali obrednim »ubo-
#:!n&!:;"&2&1"8*-&>!-%"#$;:'"( 41
36 Stefanie Martin-Kilcher, Brunnenfüllungen aus römischer Zeit mit Hirschgeweih,
Tieren, Wertsachen und Menschen, v: Blut und Wein. Keltisch-römische Kultpraktiken"_*8."N)/J%'"#82>9"5/$E%"N/+$0%P/8b9"782)2>,4)2,8/"c*82?l/''/9"@R9"F2')%E'%="
2007, str. 49–50, sl. 14.
37 Jytte Lavrsen, Weapons in Water. A European Sacrificial Rite in Italy, v: Analecta
Romana Instituti Danici, 10 (1982), str. 7–25.
38 Felix Müller, Götter, Gaben, Rituale, v: Kulturgeschichte der antiken Welt, 92
(2002); Johan Nicolay, Armed Batavians. Use and Significance of Weaponry and
Horse Gear from Non-Military Contexts in the Rhine Delta (50 BC to AD 450),
Amsterdam Archaeological Studies, 11 (2007).
39 Albert Haffner (ur.), Heiligtümer und Opferkulte der Kelten, Stuttgart 1995, str.
21–32.
40 Lars Jørgensen idr. (ur.), The Spoils of Victory. The North in the Shadow of the
Roman Empire, København 2003; Michael Müller-Wille, Opferkulte der Germanen
und Slaven, Stuttgart 1999, str. 77.
41 Oakeshott 1991, str. 4.
0$2E*83%*2O&':3&"I$@3&632'*$238&F*%FB6E'"2F3E-&
the first thought that comes to your mind is that this
weapon was hidden by its last owner into the water
cistern for a later recovery. This was also true for
@"1B"I13& 63'"1& 8*E:3E& "28& E'"'B3E-& "E& ]311& "E& *%$2&
tools from the period of Germanic invasions in the
3 rd &F32'B%C-&]:*F:&]3%3-&*2&']$&23'E-&83>$E*'38&'$&':3&
bottom of the well at the Rainach-Buch castle at the
Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes. 36 In this case the
sword could have been tied to a rope which would
;"F*1*'"'3&*'E&%3F$@3%Cp&:$]3@3%-&':3&%$>3&]"E&%B*238&
after the level of water had declined. Completely fea-
E*I13-&C3'&B2>13"E"2'-&]$B18&"1E$&:"@3&I332&I%3"':Z
hold diving since the level of water was not very high.
_2& ':3& $':3%& :"28-& ':3& 8"%,& ]"'3%& F*E'3%2& *2&
an ancient settlement could easily be imagined as
"& >1"F3& $;& "& %*'B"1& $;;3%*2O& $;& "& E]$%8-& "& ]3">$2&
]:*F:&E*2F3&*'E&*2@32'*$2&*2&':3&!*8813&)%$2+3&/O3&
had had a strong social and symbolic meaning. 37
Several finds and collections of objects recovered
;%$6&]"'3%F$B%E3E-&1",3E&"28&E]"6>E&;%$6&]3E'3%2&
N]*'+3%1"28-& 3"E'3%2& P%"2F3-& ':3& D$]3%& `:*23& "28&
the British Isles show that in the Early Iron Age and
during the Roman Period a ritual practice of depositing
objects into the water was widespread mainly
in warrior environment of Celtic and Germanic societies.
38 &5:3&:"I*'-&]:*F:&>%"F'*F"11C&63"2E&"2&*%-
%3@3%E*I13& 23B'%"1*+"'*$2-& F"2& I3& >"%"113138& ]*':&
the practice of burning and destroying weapons
]*':*2& ;B23%"1& %*'B"1E-& "E& ]311& "E& ]*':& :"2O*2O& $;&
83;$%638& E]$%8E-& :3163'E-& E:*318E& "28& E>3"%:3"8E&
*2&FB1'&>1"F3E-&;$11$]*2O&':3&6$831&$;&!38*'3%%"23"2&
tropaeum. cV In Scandinavia the massive offering of
military equipment was practiced from the Early
Pre-Roman Iron Age through the Empire Period and
':3& !*O%"'*$2& H3%*$8-& B>& '$& ':3& QQ th century. The
latter was also the period which gave birth to collections
of mainly spearheads and other weapons
discovered in swamps and moors of north Gotland. 40
While larger sets of weapons recovered from water
are most probably relics of the community offerings
36 Stefanie Martin-Kilcher, Brunnenfüllungen aus römischer Zeit mit Hirschgeweih,
Tieren, Wertsachen und Menschen, in: Blut und Wein. Keltisch-römische Kultpraktiken"_/+4"N)/J%'"#82>9"5/$E%"N/+$0%P/8b9"782)2>,4)2,8/"c*82?l/''/9"@R9"F2')%gnac
2007, pp. 49–50, fig. 14.
37 Jytte Lavrsen, Weapons in Water. A European Sacrificial Rite in Italy, in: Analecta
Romana Instituti Danici, 10 (1982), pp. 7–25.
38 Felix Müller, Götter, Gaben, Rituale, in: Kulturgeschichte der antiken Welt, 92
(2002); Johan Nicolay, Armed Batavians. Use and Significance of Weaponry and
Horse Gear from Non-Military Contexts in the Rhine Delta (50 BC to AD 450),
Amsterdam Archaeological Studies, 11 (2007).
39 Albert Haffner (ed.), Heiligtümer und Opferkulte der Kelten, Stuttgart 1995, pp.
21–32.
40 Lars Jørgensen et alii (ed.), The Spoils of Victory. The North in the Shadow of the
Roman Empire, København 2003; Michael Müller-Wille, Opferkulte der Germanen
und Slaven, Stuttgart 1999, p. 77.
M I L I T A R Y H I S T O R Y ! 153

Zbiralnik kot kraj kultnega deponiranja \V
-!"&"3"1$'-#:&+:&2&!1"#I-&+:1:.3-&4$B-L&/"%&4$-
/".>#:#$& 4:0$#-& /:%"!-;3-=& 0$8$4& -3& 01"8*-/&
B$+"38*:2L& +'"3-3:& *:%& +-2"18/-=& -3& ;1$2:I/-=&
$8*"3/$2& 2& 0$'$8*$& :/8*%:!3$& '1$B$/-=& 2$-
43#"/-=&-3&/>1*3-=&#"I/-=&7*(&-(&puits funéraries)
-.&V(&-3&R(&8*$1:*#"&0%(&3(&I*(&2&#>'$."=$43-&i"-
1-#-&"1-&2&$/2-%3$&8$;"83-=&2$43#"/-=&2&8/1$0>&
t. i. G*3%3F,EF:"2+32& 2& #>+3-& K:!;-#-& -3& Q2-H-L&
ki se povezujejo z obrednimi pojedinami in
+%*2$2"3#-( 43 & K:3"2"43"& 8:8*"2"& 0%:4!:*$2L&
/-& 8$& B-1-& 28:& 0%:#& /$*& ."2%+:3-& "1-& 3"/1#>;3$&
-.'>B1#:3-L& #:& 2:;/%"*& 4$/>!:3*-%"3"& *>4-& 2&
2$43#"/-=&%-!8/-=&>*%4B&-3&0$4:+:18/-=&2-1( 44
i:$'%"P8/$& 3"#B1-+#-& 0%-!:%& 8$& B$'"*:& 3"#4B:&
-.&.-4"3:'"&2$43#"/"L&4"*-%"3:'"&2&0%2$&0$1$-
2-H$&R(&8*$1:*#"&3(&I*(&2&D>="4$1"=&0%-&6$!:34-L&
2&/"*:%:!&8$&0$1:'&$8*"3/$2&4:2:*-=&1:8:3-=&-3&
B%$3"8*-=&2:4:%L&4:1$2&3$I:L&/1#>;:2&-3&4%>'-=&
/$2-38/-=& 0%:4!:*$2& *:%& /:%"!-;3-=& 0$8$4&
3"I1-& *>4-& I:8*& 3:0$I/$4$2"3-=& I*-%-%$':1#3-=&
/$0";( 45 Motiv odprtine v zemlji kot poveza-
2:& 8& 80$43#-!& 82:*$!& 8:& 0$3$2-& 0%-& 4"%-*2"=&
2&/%"I/"&B%:.3"L 46 med katerimi tudi v nadregionalnem
smislu izstopa 47 m globoka Mušja
#"!"&0%-&Q/$H#"3>&.&$%$+#:!&-.&0$.3:&B%$3"8*:&
dobe in rimskega obdobja. 47
@& /"*:'$%-#$& 2$*-23-=& 4:0$#:2& 8$4-#$& *>4-&
3"#4B:& -.& $4!"/3#:3-=& '$.43"*-=& $B!$;-#& -3&
3:4$8*$03-=& /%"#:2(& F3"& $4& .3";-13-=& 3"#4BL&
/-&8$&/$3*:/8*>"13$&0%-!:%1#-2:&.&$%$+#:!L&4:1-&
3$I:&-3&3$2H-&.&'$%8/-=&0%:1".$2&-3&-.&$/$1-H:&
.3";-13-=&8/"13-=&$B1-/L&#:&!:;&.&!"341#"8*-!&
'1"2-;:!&-3&*"2I-%"3$&!"'-;3$&P$%!>1$&-.&RV(&
"1-&Re(&8*$1:*#"L&/-&8$&'"&0$&3"/1#>;#>&$4/%-1-&0%-&
'$.43-=&4:1-=&0$4&B"12"3$!&0%-&/%"#>&58H=1-3[
@-3"4-L&3:4"1:;&$4&4"3"I3#:&I2-H"%8/$["28*%-#ske
meje. 48
-)6'+&2(2+"4:4&#'(2627#4(1(*6'+&#'=(1'3$(
Po danes skoraj splošno sprejeti tezi se je
2& /$3*-3:3*"13-& F2%$0-& .& ,%-*"38/-!& $*$;#:!&
42 Torbrügge 1972, str. 77–80.
43 Haffner 1995, str. 37–41.
44 Martin-Kilcher 2007, str. 49; Noelke 2007, str. 308–319.
45 Jana Horvat, Dekle je po vodo šlo ... Rimski vodnjak iz Suhadol"_F/+2D3,'41,"0*W/-"
Kamnik, r. k.), Kamnik 2006, str. 13–33.
46 Torbrügge 1972, str. 89.
47" F%812"]8/$,>9"Z%"#82))%"+/$$/"F24=>/"_F*(-%"-%0%b"?8/442"u12=-%'"_N%'"M%'W,%'2b"
sul Carso ed il suo ruolo di ambiente di culto quale punto d'incontro delle culture
del tardo bronzo dell'Italia peninsulare, dei Balcani, dell'Europa centrale e dell'area
Egea, v: Atti della Società per la preistoria e protostoria della regione Friuli-Venezia
Giulia, 6 (1992), str. 73–104.
48 Jürg Rageth, Ein mittelalteriches Schwert mit Zauberspruch von Tschlin-Vinadi GR,
v: Archäologie der Schweiz 23/3 (2001), str. 128–130.
154 ! V O J A Š K A Z G O D O V I N A
performed within the ceremonies after raids and war
F"6>"*O2E-&*28*@*8B"11C&8*EF$@3%38&E]$%8E&F$B18&I3&
%31"'38&'$&*28*@*8B"1&"F'*$2E-&;$%&3a"6>13&':3&$;;3%ing
of weapons which belonged to the defeated adver-
E"%C&]*':*2&%*'3&83&>"EE"O3-&$%&"&%*'B"1&l,*11*2Of&$;&':3&
sword owned by a dying person. 41 A water cistern as
a place of a cult deposition [U is not a new phenom-
32$2-&]:*F:&*E&>%$@38&IC&:$"%8E&$;&F3%"6*F&@3EE31E&
"28&E'"'B3''3E&$;&O$8E-&IB%2'&%36"*2E-&"E&]311&"E&%3-
6"*2E&$;&"2*6"1E&"28&:B6"2E-&%3F$@3%38&;%$6&BEBally
extremely deep wells and cult shafts (so called
>B*'E&;B2r%"%*3E=&;%$6&':3&U nd and 1 st centuries B.C.
*2&E$B':]3E'&K"B1-&$%&;%$6&F$2'36>$%"%C&]311E&]*':-
*2& E$& F"1138& G*3%3F,EF:"2+32& *2& E$B':3%2& K3%6"2C&
"28&N]*'+3%1"28-&]:*F:&"%3&F$223F'38&'$&%*'B"1&;3"E'E&
and sacrifices. 43 &5:3&B2BEB"1&F$6>$E*'*$2&$;&$I#3F'E-&
which were certainly not discarded or accidentally
1$E'-&:"E&$;'32&I332&E332&*2&]311E&$;&`$6"2&;$%'*;*cations
and country villas. 44 &_2&N1$@32*"2&'3%%*'$%C&
this is the case of finds recovered from a stone-built
well from the first century AD in Suhadole near
7$6328"&*2&]:*F:&">"%'&;%$6&':3&%36"*2E&$;&2*23&
]$$832&"28&I%$2+3&IBF,3'E-&>"%'E&$;&"''*%3-&,3CE&"28&
$':3%&63'"1&$I#3F'E-&E*a&*2'"F'&6"''$F,E 45 were also
found. The motif of an opening in the ground as a
connection with the underground reappears with
$;;3%*2OE& *2'$& 7"%E'& F"@3E. 46 & M$'"I1C-& "6$2O& ':3E3-&
!BJ#"&#"6"-&"&[m6&833>&>*'&23"%&â,$F#"2&*2&]:*F:&
]3">$2E&;%$6&':3&D"'3&)%$2+3&/O3&"28&':3&`$6"2&
Period 47 were discovered also supraregionally.
The category of votive hoards also includes objects
found in remote forest areas and inaccessible loca-
'*$2E.&_23&$;&':3&'C>*F"1&;*28E&':"'&F$B18-&*2&'3%6E&
$;&*'E&F$2'3a'-&I3&F$6>"%38&'$&':3&]3">$2E-&>"%'E&$;&
costumes and coins from mountain passes and sur-
%$B28*2OE-&>%3@"*138&IC&'C>*F"1&%$F,&;$%6"'*$2E-&*E&
a sword with an almond-shaped pommel and an in-
1"C38&E>311&;%$6&':3&QU th or 13 th &F32'B%C-&;$B28&IC&"Fcident
during forestal works under the boulder near
5EF:1*2ZG*2"8*-&2$'&;"%&;%$6&'$8"CfE&N]*EE&h&/BE'%*"2&
border. 48
41 Oakeshott 1991, p. 4.
42 Torbrügge 1972, pp. 77–80.
43 Haffner 1995, pp. 37–41.
44 Martin-Kilcher 2007, p. 49; Noelke 2007, pp. 308–319.
45 Jana Horvat, Dekle je po vodo šlo... Rimski vodnjak iz Suhadol (Intermunicipal
Museum of Kamnik, Exhibition Catalogue), Kamnik 2006, pp. 13–33.
46 Torbrügge 1972, pp. 89.
47" F%812"]8/$,>9"Z%"#82))%"+/$$/"F24=>/"_F*(-%"-%0%b"?8/442"u12=-%'"_N%'"M%'W,%'2b"
sul Carso ed il suo ruolo di ambiente di culto quale punto d'incontro delle culture
del tardo bronzo dell'Italia peninsulare, dei Balcani, dell'Europa centrale e dell'area
Egea, in: Atti della Società per la preistoria e protostoria della regione Friuli-Venezia
Giulia, 6 (1992), pp. 73–104.
48 Jürg Rageth, Ein mittelalteriches Schwert mit Zauberspruch von Tschlin-Vinadi GR,
in: Archäologie der Schweiz 23/3 (2001), pp. 128–130.

-3&D/"34-3"2-#$&*%"4-H-#"&4:0$3-%"3#"&$%$+#"&2&
vodo prenesla tudi v visoki srednji vek in naprej.
\W &@&0%-!:%>&8%:43#:2:I/-=&!:;:2&-.&bljanice
je sklepanje o domnevni prostorski
/$3*-3>-*:*-&$41"'"1-I;&m4$1':'"&*%"#"3#"n&!:4&
0%".'$4$2-3$L&"3*-/$&-3&8%:43#-!&2:/$!&."%"-
4-& 0$!"3#/1#-2-=& 0$4"*/$2& $& 3"*"3;3-=& 1$/"-
H-#"=& 2:;-3:& 3"#4-I;& 80$%3$L& 2:34"%& 3"8*"2:/&
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-.&R\(&8*$1:*#"&-.&8*%>':&3"&I-%I:!&$B!$;#>&-.1--
2"Ξ-H:L 50 na katero se navezujejo še »srednje-
2:I/-n& -3& m'$*8/-n& !:;& .& m.1"*-!n& .3"/$!& -.&
!$;2-%#"&$.(&#"%/"&A%:0%$I-H"&7A%$IH"?L&!$%:-
B-*-&0"&*>4-&4%>'-&80$%$;:3-&!:;&.&B1#"38/:ga
barja. 51 &@&$/$1-H-&#"%/"L&/-&#:&.:1$&2:%#:*3$&
3:/4"3#-& -.1-2& XI;-H:L& 2& /"*:%:!& 8$& -!:1-& !:-
3-=-& 3:!I/:'"& 2-*:I/:'"& %:4"& 3-.& %-B3-/$2L YV
8$&+:&RZ\S&$4/%-1-&+:1:.3$4$B3$&!"="-%$L&:3$&
$4&4$/"#&I*:2-13-=&/$2-38/-=&3"#4B&-.&$B4$B#"&
!:4&B%$3"8*$&4$B$&-3&%-!8/-!&H:8"%8*2$!L&3"&
/"*:%:& 8$& 3"1:*:1-& 2& I$*3-=& 01"8*:=& 3"& ,"%#>(&
X.&8$8:43#:'"&$48:/"&B1#"3-H:&-.2-%"&I:&2:;&
0%".'$4$2-38/-=&-3&%-!8/-=&3"#4BL&3"&*:!&!:-
8*>&0"&3"8&."3-!"&0%:428:!&8/>0-3"&:3"#8*-=&
8>1-;3-=&$8*-&8&/$3H"&Z(&-3&-.&W(&8*$1:*#"L&/-&#-=&
80%:!1#"#$& $/2-%3$& 8$;"83:& $8*-& 0>I;-HL& /$3--
H:&.&."1>8*!-L&3$+-L&/%:8-1"&-3&4%>'-&/$2-38/-&
predmeti. 53 &K"#4B:&B-&B-1$&!$'$;:&0$2:."*-&.&
$B8*$#:!&4$!3:23:&3"4.$%3:&*$;/:&3"&8$*$;#>&
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'$;:&80%:'1:4"*-&>#:!"3#"&8&I-%I-!&P:3$!:3$!&
0$8"!-;3-=&3"#4B&/"%$1-3I/-=&8>1-;3-=&$8*-&-3&
!:;:2&-.&2$43-=&/$3*:/8*$2&-3&=/%"*3-!&$0>-
I;"3#:!&0$1"'"3#"&$%$+#"&2&'%$B$2:L&/-&$.3"-
;>#:& 2:;#:& 4:1:& 8%:43#:& F2%$0:( 54 Barjansko
$/$1#:& .& 2$43-!-& $/3-L& %:*#-& -3& 80%:!-3#"#$;--
!-&8:&8*%>'"!-&$0$."%#"&3"&!$+3$8*&/>1*3:'"&
4$#:!"3#"& *:'"& 0%$8*$%"L& /-& 8:& "!B-:3*"13$&
0%-B1-+>#:& 82:*-I;>& 3"& 2.0:*-3-& h-*3ä& $8*%$2&
med rokavi Donave v Mostu pri Bratislavi in
1$/"H-#"!&01:!:38/-=&82:*-I;&2.=$43-=&D1$2"-
3$2&2&$/%$'1-=&>*%4B"=&7bolotnye gorodishcha?L&
1$H-%"3-=&2&$4!"/3#:3-=&!$;2-%#-=( 55
49" Z%&84/'"@ASQ9"4)8.":L"Z*+X,E"7%*$,9"#/X\44/8J*'+/"%*4"h/84,'E/'"*'+";*8$%J,'E/'9"
v: Michael Mackensen, Frühkaiserzeitliche Kleinkastelle bei Nersingen und Burlafingen
an der oberen Donau, Münchner Beiträge zur Vor- und Frühgeschichte, 41
(1987), str. 303–305; Müller-Wille 1999, str. 78–80.
50 Nabergoj 2001, št. 14, 15, 20, 24.
51 Nabergoj 2001, str. 104.
52 Franz Hochenwart, Die Entsumpfung des Laibacher Morastes, Laibach 1838, str.
9, 25, 29.
53" N&2$-(%1",+8."@AA:9"4)8."Q!A9"QBQ9")."@Qf":L"@Bf"KL"@Sf"KL"72$2'%";,)/'=9"e,02)/-"G',J,=9"
U8>/2$2(12"'%-+,(3/"Z-*D$-%',=%9"&f"U8E29"TRgQ"_@AA:b9"4)8."QQL",4)%9"Od Rimljanov
do Slovanov."78/+0/),"_h%82+',"0*W/-"N$2&/',-/9"8."1.b."Z-*D$-%'%"QRR@9"()."KKQ.
54" 7%*$,"@AS:9"4)8."KRKOKRT9"2?."K@.
55" `$%+,0,8" e*83%'9" k$+6N$%&2',=" N%'=)*%8,/4" ,'" MW/=>,%" %'+" N$2&%1,%9" &f" Studia
Ritual Deposition of Weapons in the Middle
Ages
According to today’s commonly accepted theo-
%C-& ':3& '%"8*'*$2& $;& ]3">$2& 83>$E*'*$2& *2'$& ]"'3%-&
>%"F'*F38& *2& F$2'*232'"1& 3-& ':3& )%*'*E:& WE13E&
"28&NF"28*2"@*"-&]"E&'%"2E;3%%38&"1E$&'$&':3&b*O:&
Middle Ages and thereafter. [V In the case of swords
%3F$@3%38&;%$6&':3&%*@3%&D#BI1#"2*F"-&8B3&'$&1"F,&$;&
information on the exact location of the majority
$;&':3&;*28E-&':3&%313@"2F3&$;&6",*2O&F$2F1BE*$2E&$2&
potential spatial continuity of deposition places of
long duration lasting from Prehistory through the
/2'*dB*'C& '$& ':3& !*8813& /O3E& *E& E$63:$]& 8BI*$BE-&
:$]3@3%-&':3&*28*F"'*$2E&;$%&':36&8$&3a*E'.&5:*E&*E&"&
group of at least four swords from the 14 th &F32'B%C-&
recovered from the river bed in the wider area of the
WJA*F" 50 outflow. Related to these swords is also a
l638*3@"1f&"28&lO$':*Ff&E]$%8&]*':&"&lO$18f&E*O2&;$B28&
*2&':3&E]"6>&$%&8*'F:&H%3>$JA*F"&9H%$JF"=-&"28&>$tentially
another sword reported to have been found
in the Ljubljana Moor. 51 In the vicinity of the ditch
]:*F:&*E&>%$I"I1C&"&;$%63%&$B';1$]&$;&':3&WJA*F"&"28&
*2&]:*F:&6$2,E-&I31$2O*2O&'$&':3&K3%6"2&,2*O:'1C&
$%83%-& :318& "& E3'& $;& >$28E- XU back in 1846 an Iron
Age machaira was found. This is one of several metal
$I#3F'E&;%$6&':3&>3%*$8&I3']332&':3&)%$2+3&/O3&"28&
':3&`$6"2&*%3-&;$B28&*2&':3&>3"'&1"C3%E&$;&':3&
Moor. In the neighboring area of the river Ljubljanica
E3@3%"1& H%3:*E'$%*F& "28& `$6"2& $I#3F'E& ]3%3& ;$B28-&
but a group of eleven spear heads from the end of
the 8 th &"28&V th &F32'B%C-&"FF$6>"2*38&IC&'36>$%"%C&
"%%$]&:3"8E-&I"%I38&>$*2'E-&,2*@3E-&'*283%&"28&$':3%&
63'"1& $I#3F'E- 53 is of special interest. These objects
could be related to the existence of a potential control
post at the confluence of the rivers Ljubljanica and
WJA*F"-&]:*13&"'&':3&$':3%&:"28&$23&F"22$'&*O2$%3&':3&
compliance with a wider phenomenon of individual
0"%$1*2O*"2&E>3"%:3"8E&"28&E]$%8E-&%3F$@3%38&;%$6&
':3&]"'3%E-&"E&]311&"E&]*':&"&E*6B1'"23$BE&"I"28$2-
632'&$;&':3&]3">$2&83>$E*'*$2&*2'$&O%"@3E-&'C>*F"1&
for the majority of the Central Europe. 54 The moor
]*':& *'E& E6"11& >$28E-& E>%*2OE& "28& F:"2O3"I13& %*@3%&
beds offers a possibility for a cult perception of this
49" Z%&84/'"@ASQ9"?.":L"Z*+X,E"7%*$,9"#/X\44/8J*'+/"%*4"h/84,'E/'"*'+";*8$%J,'E/'9"
in: Michael Mackensen, Frühkaiserzeitliche Kleinkastelle bei Nersingen und Burlafingen
an der oberen Donau, Münchner Beiträge zur Vor- und Frühgeschichte,
41 (1987), pp. 303–305; Müller-Wille 1999, pp. 78–80.
50 Nabergoj 2001, No. 14, 15, 20, 24.
51 Nabergoj 2001, pp. 104.
52 Franz Hochenwart, Die Entsumpfung des Laibacher Morastes, Laibach 1838, pp.
9, 25, 29.
53" N&2$-(%1"/)"%$,,9"@AA:9"??."Q!A9"QBQ9")."@Qf":L"@Bf"KL"@Sf"KL"72$2'%";,)/'=9"e,02)/-"
G',J,=9"U8>/2$2(12"'%-+,(3/"Z-*D$-%',=%9",'f"Argo,"TRgQ"_@AA:b9"?."QQL"72$2'%";,)/'=9"
Timotej Knific, Od Rimljanov do Slovanov. Predmeti (National Museum of Slovenia,
Exhhibition Catalogue). Ljubljana 2001, No. 332.
54" 7%*$,"@AS:9"??."KRKOKRT9"'2)/"K@.
M I L I T A R Y H I S T O R Y ! 155

@1$'$&2$4:L&/-&#:&fons et origo&28:'"&$B8*$#"L&
2&0$'"38/-=&/>1*-=&D1$2"3$2&$!:3#"&A%$/$0-#&
iz Cezareje (De bello Gothico&XXXL&Re?L&/-&3"2"-
#"L&4"&mD1$2:3-&-3&E3*-&;"8*-#$&*>4-&%:/:L&3-!P:&
72-1:?& -3& 4%>'"& B$+"38*2"& *:%& 28:!& *:!& *>4-&
2:;/%"*&4"%>#:#$b&!:4&*:!&8:&2%I:&%".3"&0%:-
%$/$2"3#"n(&O"&8$&4"%$2-&0%-&7."=$43-=?&D1$2"-
3-=&2/1#>;:2"1-&*>4-&$%$+#:L&0$*%#>#:#$&3"2:4B:&
':%!"38/:'"& /%$3-8*"& l:%B$%4"& -.& RV(& 8*$1:-
*#"L&/-&2&4%>'-&/3#-'-&4*"1$OBE&83&@*'"&N.&_''$2*E&
episcopi Babenbergensis 7eV?&2&$0-8>&5%-'1"2>&
0$82:;:3:'"& *:!01#"& 2& D*:**-3>& 7D.H.:H-3?&
0-I:L&4"&8$&1#>4#:&2"3#&0$&$B-;"#>&82$#-=&0%:43--
/$2&0%-3"I"1-&."01:3#:3$&$%$+#:&8$2%"+3-/$2&-3&
desetino vsakega plena. 56 Poseben pomen su-
1-;3-=&$8*-&2&/>1*3-=&0%"/8"=&D1$2"3$2&8$&"%=:-
$1$I/$&0$*%4-1:&%".-8/"2:&82:*-I;&i%$á&C"4:3&
-3&A"%H=-!L&82:*:&8>1-H:&0"&8$&$!:3#"3:&*>4-&
0%-&*:!01#-=&C:*=%"L&p$1-3&7f>1-3?&-3&E%/$3"(&
Saxo Grammaticus (Gesta Danorum R\L& ZVk?
3"2"#"L&4"&8$&#-=&82:;:3-/-&*:!01#"&E%/$3"&3"&
polotoku Rügen uporabljali pri napovedovanju
-.-4$2&2$#"I/-=&0$=$4$2&"1-&0$!$%8/-=&0$42-gov.
57
@& /$3*:/8*>& 3"4%:'-$3"13-=& 80%:!:!B& 2&
%-*>"13:!& %"23"3#>& .& $%$+#:!& -.8*$0"& *>4-&
0%-B1-+3$& 8$;"8:3& /$!01:/8& 4:13$& P%"'!:3-
*-%"3:'"& $%$+#"L& 1>/8>.3:& /$3#:3-I/:& $0%"2:L&
1-*>%'-;3-=&0%:4!:*$2L&$%$4#"&-3&4%>'-=&/$2-3-
8/-=&3"#4B&-.&+'"3-38/:&01"8*-&3"&$B!$;#>&0$-
.3$%-!8/:&>*%#:3:&3"8:1B-3:&3"&i%"4-I;>&3"4&
Bašljem. 58 &K"#4-I;3:&$/$1-I;-3:&*:%&81:4$2-&!"-
3-0>1"H-#:&-3&P>3/H-$3"13"&8:8*"2"&0%:4!:*$2&
7'1"2-;-&!:;:2L&0>I;-;3:&$8*-L&8:/-%:L&#:%!:3-
8/-&/$3H-L&%".4:1-H-L&$8*%$':L&8*%:!:3"L&B%.4:L&
0$32:L&/1#>;-L&3$+-L&I/"%#:L&I-1"L&.2$3:HL&/"4-1-
3-H"?L&$0$."%#"#$&3"&!$+3$8*&8/>0-38/-=&4"%-tev
v opusteli utrdbi iz 5. in 6. stoletja. Ozko
."!:#:3$& $B!$;#:& 0$#"21#"3#"& 0%:4!:*$2& 3"&
80$43#-&*:%"8-&0%-&#>+3:!&4:1>&8*"%:'"&$B.-4#"&
!$%4"&'$2$%-&$&82:*:!&0%$8*$%>L&/"!$%&8$&4:-
0$3-%"1-& 0%:4!:*:L& /-& 8$& 0%:8*"1-& $;-I;:2"13$&
!$;& $'3#"( YW & M41"'"1-I;:& 2& 8!-81>& m+:1:.3:ga
mesta« 60 ima konceptualne vzporednice v
mythologica Slavica, 4 (2001), str. 104.
56" Z/4W/1"7%X/$"N|*?/=1,9"Slavonic Pagan Sanctuaries, Warsaw 1994, str. 72–73
57" 5284)"G/,$,'E9"H/8"kD2+8,)/')/0?/$"&2'"7%8=>,0"*'+"+,/"G*$)>%$$/"&2'"#82}">38&
"1E$&':3&%*@3%E-&2C6>:E&9;"*%*3E=&"28&$':3%&O$8E&'$&
which they often offered gifts while performing vari-
$BE&>%$>:3F*3Ef.&_;;3%*2OE&$;&':3&9j3E'=&N1"@E&*2F1B8ed
also weapons. This fact is confirmed by a German
F:%$2*F13%& b3%I$%8& ;%$6& ':3& QU th century who in
':3&E3F$28&I$$,&32'*'138&4*"1$OBE&83&@*'"&N.&_''$2*E&
3>*EF$>*& )"I32I3%O32E*E& 9cU=& 83EF%*I3E& "& '36>13& *2&
N'3''*2&9N+F+3F*2=-&838*F"'38&'$&':3&O$8&5%*O1"@-&"28&
E"CE&':"'&>3$>13-&;$11$]*2O&':3&:"I*'&$;&':3*%&"2F3E-
'$%E-& I%$BO:'& '$& ':*E& '36>13& ]3">$2E& F$2;*EF"'38&
;%$6&':3*%&3236*3E-&"E&]311&"E&$23&'32':&$;&':3&1$$'. 56
A special meaning of spearheads within Slavic cult
practices have been archeologically confirmed by
3a>1$%"'*$2E& $;& '36>13E& K%${& `"832& "28& H"%F:*6-&
while holy spears are also mentioned in relation to
':3&'36>13E&`3':%"-&j$1*2&9eB1*2=&"28&/%,$2".&N"a$&
K%"66"'*FBE&9K3E'"&4"2$%B6&Q[-&YUm=&F1"*6E&':"'&
holy spears were used by priests of the temple Arkona
in the peninsula of Rügen to help them predict results
of military marches or sea ventures. 57
Within the context of transregional changes to the
ritual handling of weapons is worth mentioning also
"&E*6B1'"23$BE&E3'&$;&>"%'*"11C&;%"O632'38&]3">$2E-&
1BaB%C&F"@"1%C&3dB*>632'-&1*'B%O*F"1&*'36E-&'$$1E&"28&
other metal objects found in the burnt remains in the
"%3"&$;&"&D"'3&`$6"2&;$%'*;*38&E3''13632'&*2&K%"8*JA3&
above Bašelj. 58 & 5:3& F*%FB6E'"2F3E& $;& ':3& 8*EF$@3%C-&
as well as the traces of manipulations and the func-
'*$2"1& F$6>$E*'*$2& $;& ':3& $I#3F'E& 9E]$%8& >$6631E-&
E>3"%:3"8E-& "a3E-& E'%">& '3%6*2"1E-& E'%">Z8*@*83%E-&
E>B%E-&E'*%%B>E-&I%*813E-&"&>"2-&,3CE-&,2*@3E-&EF*EE$%E-&
"2&"]1-&"&I311-&"&F32E3%=&$;;3%&"&>$EE*I*1*'C&$;&F$66Bnity
offerings in a desolate fortification from the 5 th
or 6 th century. A very limited area within which the
55" `$%+,0,8" e*83%'9" k$+6N$%&2',=" N%'=)*%8,/4" ,'" MW/=>,%" %'+" N$2&%1,%9" ,'f" Studia
mythologica Slavica, 4 (2001), p. 104.
56" Z/4W/1"7%X/$"N|*?/=1,9"Slavonic Pagan Sanctuaries, Warsaw 1994, pp. 72–73.
57" 5284)"G/,$,'E9"H/8"kD2+8,)/')/0?/$"&2'"7%8=>,0"*'+"+,/"G*$)>%$$/"&2'"#82}"

3"#4B"=& -.& .'$43#:8%:43#:2:I/:'"& '%"4-I;"&
,$#3Ö&X[@"1g&3"&."=$43:!&D1$2"I/:!&-3&4%>-
'-=& 3"#4-I;& K-*%"38/:& /3:+:2-3:( 61 Iz gradiva
81"B$&0$.3"3:&3$*%"3#$8*-&*:'"&'%"4-I;"&-.2-%"&
$'%$!3$& 0$8"!-;3-=& 4:*:/*$%"I/-=& 3"#4B& -3&
28"#& 4:8:*& 4:0$#:2& /$2-38/-=& 0%:4!:*$2& 0%--
!:%1#-2:&8:8*"2:(&K"&%".!:%:&3"&i%"4-I;>&3"4&
,"I1#:!&80$!-3#"&*>4-&0-;1"&."8*$0"3$8*&8$;"-
83-=&3"8:1B-38/-=&3"#4BL&/-&0"&#:&2&$B:=&0%-!:-
%-=&4:13$&0$81:4-H"&8*"3#"&%".-8/"2(
K"& $=%"3-*:2& 8*"%-=& 0$'"38/-=& -.%$;-1& 4$&
/$3H"&8%:43#:'"&2:/"L SV &3:&'1:4:&3"&3#-=$2$&*:-
!:1#3$&3:.4%>+1#-2$8*&8&/%I;"38*2$!L&0$1:'&0$-
8*"21#"3#"&H:%/2"&3"&8*"%:#I-=&/>1*3-=&!:8*-= 63
$0$."%#"& *>4-& 0%:0$2:4-& ;"I;:3#"& 3"%"23-=&
P:3$!:3$2( 64 Na leto 1331 se nanaša izjemen
4$/>!:3*&$&/%-+"%8/:!&0$=$4>&0%$*-&81$2"3-
8/-!& 0%:B-2"1H:!L& /-& 8$& 2& '$%"=& 3"& 6$B"%--
I/:!&!3$+-;3$&;"8*-1-&4%:2$&-3&-.2-%&0%-&3#:'$-
2-=&/$%:3-3"=( 65 &K"&2$#8/$L&2&$/2-%>&/"*:%:&8$&
»ne brez osebne nevarnosti« posekali drevo in
."8>1-&-.2-%L&#:&0$.2"1&P%"3;-I/"3&Franciscus de
ClugiaL&-3/2-.-*$%&m.$0:%&=:%:*-;3$&-.0%-#:3$8*&
2&,:3:;-#-&-3&N>%1"3-#-n( 66 &93"3$&#:&*>4-&0$;:*#:&
2-*:."&@-4"[p:-*1"&-.&,%:8*:%3-H:L&/-&8$&'"&3"&
4>=$23:!& 8$4-I;>& 1:*"& ReTT& $B4$1+-1-& 0$1:'&
4%>'-=&=>4$4:18*:2&I:&!"1-/$2"3#"&4%:2:8"&-3&
/1-H"3#"&=>4-;"( 67
I#*"4
9"43#-& 1"8*3-/& !:;"& .& E#4$28/:'"& '%"4H"&
3"4&@%"3#:!L&/-&#:&0%2-;&$!:3#:3$&1:*"&ReTWL&
#:&.:1$&2:%#:*3$&-.="#"1&-.&/>1*>%3:'"&$/$1#"L&/-&
#:&P"2$%-.-%"1$&#>3"I/$&:0-/$&-3&2&/"*:%:!&8*"&
B-1-&3"#2-I#-&2%:43$*-&B$#:2"3#:&-3&;"8*(&K"'3#:-
3$8*&P:24"13:&4%>+B:&/&%-*>"1-.-%"3-&$B%"23"2-&
61" G%82$"7,/)%9"U$/j%'+/8"2"1',/V%)4)&%9"78/+D/V'~"4?8~&%9"&f"Bojná, Hospodárske a politické cen-
126A!X'12'#%-()03!H%')/#1-1.#"_*8."G%82$"7,/)%9"U$/j%'+/8">38&':3&
tree and the spring at its roots. 65 &5:3&"%6C-&]:*F:&FB'&
8$]2&':3&'%33&"28&;*1138&B>&':3&E>%*2O-&l2$'&]*':$B'&
>3%E$2"1&%*E,f-&]"E&F"1138&IC&"&P%"2F*EF"2&P%"2F*EFBE&
83&01BO*"-&"2&*2dB*E*'$%&"O"*2E'&l:3%3'*F"1&83O323%"tion
in Veneto and Friuli’. 66 Well known are also the
"F'*$2E&$;&"&,2*O:'&G*8Zj3*'1&;%$6&)%3E'3%2*F"&]:$-&
*2& QcSS-& ]"E& "'& ':3& N>*%*'B"1& 0$B%'& "6$2O& $':3%&
things accused also of worshipping a tree and calling
the devil. 67
Conclusion
The last owner of the sword from Ajdovski gradec
"I$@3&G%"2#3-&632'*$238&;$%&':3&;*%E'&'*63&*2&QcSR-&
59" e*83%'"QRR@9"?."@RA."e>/"N$%&4"X/8/"=2'4,+/8/+"DP"U8%D,=")8%&/$$/84"%4"J,8/6X28-
4>,??/849"X>,=>"X%4")>/"%))8,D*)/"2J"N&%8*E"%'+"7/8*'.
60"U")/80"*4/+"DP"+8."U."7$/)/841,."M20?%8/")>/"/)P02$2EP"2J"%'"k$+"5,E>"#/80%'"J,84)"
name Isangart _v4%'gc,4/'"w",82'L"#%8)"w"J/'=/b.
61" G%82$"7,/)%9"U$/j%'+/8"2" 1',/V%)4)&%9" 78/+D/V'~" 4?8~&%9" ,'f9" ;2-'~9" 524?2+~841/" %" ?2$,),=1l"
=/')8*0" h,)8,%'41/>2" G',/V%)4)&%" _/+4" G%82$" 7,/)%9" U$/j%'+/8" ,=>"8/J/84")2")>/"C/4)"N$%&4"_N|*?/=1,"@AAT9"
p. 163).
66" v&2"a*&%'3,39"G8,V%841%"&2-41%"?82),"G2D%8,+=/0"@KK@9",'f"":3$3.'%-('!7#-39'-4
38/1–2 (1984), pp. 49–55.
67 Ivan Stopar, C.)1!.'1)

$%$+#"&4"#:&81>*-*-&*>4-&1:':34"&$&FrH"1-B>%#>L&
kot jo podaja Le Morte d'Arthur&5=$!"8"&)"1-
1$%g#"&7R\TY_kR?(&@&$."4#>&0%-0$2:4-&$&!:;>L&
ki ga je bilo treba po smrti nosilca vrniti v var-
8*2$& #:.:%8/-& 2-1-L& 1"=/$& 0%:0$.3"!$& 28:B-3:&
8*"%$[&-3&8%:43#:-%8/-=&8"'L&/-&$0-8>#:#$&!-*$-
1$I/:& B$#:23-/:& -3& 3#-=$2$& !"'-;3$& $%$+#:L& 8&
/"*:%-!&#:&B-1$&!$;&.!"'$2"*-&1:&3"&0%:'".-=&2&
$B1"8*-&2$43-=&2-1( 68 Priljubljenost viteške epi-
/:L& /-& #:& B-1"& 2& !"%8-;:!& 2:."3"& 3"& !-*-;3$&
-.%$;-1$&"%*>%-#"38/-=&1:':34L&3"&*:4"3#:!&Q*"jerskem
dokazuje tudi MonpreisL& -.2-%3$& -!:&
gradu nad Planino pri Sevnici. Ta grad nasto-
0"&H:1$&2&2:%.-P-H-%"3:!&%$!"3>&A"%.-2"1&3:!-
I/:'"&!-3:.:3':%#"&p$1P%"!"&2$3&F8H=:3B"-
H="&7$/(&RRkT_$/(&RVVT?L&/-&0%-3"I"&0%:4:1"2$&
pripovedi o iskanju svetega grala. SW
X3*-!3$8*& 8*"%$4"23:& 3"8:1B-3:& 3"& E#-
4$28/:!& '%"4H>L& /"*:%:& -!:& 2& 1$/"13:!& -.-
%$;-1>& I:& 4"3:8& $=%"3#"& 80$!-3& 3"& !-*8/:&
0%"0%:B-2"1H:L 70 in tamkajšnja kotanja s temno
2$4$L&m$B&/"*:%-&$B8*"3:IL&;:&-!"I&0$'1:4&."&
*$nL 71 utemeljujejo razmišljanja o kultni daritvi
0%:8*-+3:'"&$%$+#"&/$*&8:8*"23:!&4:1>&2-*:I/:-
'"&-.%$;-1"L&0%:+:*:'"&8&/%I;"38/$&-4:$1$'-#$(
[7>,7*"
9"&28:8*%"38/$&0$!$;&0%-&0%-0%"2-&0%-80:2-
/"L&0$8%:4$2"3:&0$4"*/:&$&3"#4B-&-3&4$2$1#:-
3#:& ."& $B#"2$& P$*$'%"P-#:& 8:& ."=2"1#>#:!& 4%(&
5-!$*:#>& 63-P-H>L& !"'(& 5$!"+>& K"B:%'$#>L&
5$!"+>&&-3&A$1$3-&,-*:3H&-.&K"%$43:-
'"& !>.:#"& D1$2:3-#:(& 9"=2"1#>#:!& 8:& *>4-& 4%(&
E34%:#>& A1:*:%8/:!>L& 4%(& ,:3#"!-3>& Q*>1"%#>&
-3&X2"3>&)"%-#-&l%$2"*-3>&.&X3I*-*>*"&."&"%=:-
$1$'-#$&9C`&DE9c&."&/$%-8*3"&3"2$4-1"&-3&0$sredovane
citate.
/$,0"5"#
Med izkopavanjem poznorimskega vod-
3:'"& .B-%"13-/"& 3"& E#4$28/:!& '%"4H>& 3"4&
@%"3#:!& 0%-& D:23-H-& 2& 8:.$3-& RWkkUZ& 8$& 3"&
'1$B-3-& VLY& !& 8/>0"#& $4/%-1-& 3:0$I/$4$2"3&
0$.3$8%:43#:2:I/-& !:;& -3& .4%$B1#:3$& /:%"[
!-;3$& 0$8$4$L& /-& 8*"& !:4& $8*"1-!& '%"4-2$!&
68" ,"'%"m',12E%8('-/0n"
ozemlju istrskega zaledja, v: Acta Histriae, 13/1 (2005), str. 114–115.
71" a*&%'3,3"@AST9"4)8."!Q."
158 ! V O J A Š K A Z G O D O V I N A
probably originated in a cultural environment which
favoured heroic epic poetry and which revered combat
and honour as ultimate values. The inclination
$;& ;3B8"1& E$F*3'C& '$]"%8E& %*'B"1*+38& F$2E*83%"'*$2&
of weapons can be seen in the legend of Excalibur
as described by Thomas Mallory (1405–1471) in
Le Morte d’Arthur. In the story of a sword which after
the death of its owner had to be returned to the
FBE'$8C&$;&"&1",3&;"*%C&]3&F"2&%3F$O2*+3&':3&':363E&
$;& _18& "28& !*8813& W%*E:& E"O"E& ]:*F:& '311& E'$%*3E& $;&
mythological combatants and their magical weapons
with which they could win only in the fords ruled by
water fairies. 68 The popularity of knight epic poetry
which in many aspects is related to a mythical tradi-
'*$2&$;&/%':B%*"2&13O328E&*E-&*2&':3&"%3"&$;&':3&':32&
â'"#3%E,"& 9N'C%*"=-& F$2;*%638& "1E$& IC& ':3& $%*O*2"1&
2"63& ;$%& "& F"E'13& H1"2*2"& 23"%& N3@2*F"-& !$2>%3*E.&
This castle is also a protagonist of a versified novel
H"%+*@"1-&]%*''32&IC&"&K3%6"2&6*223E*2O3%&j$1;%"6&
@$2&>%$a.&QQmSh">>%$a.&QUUS=-&"&%3make
of a story about a search of the Holy Grail. RV
The intimate atmosphere of an ancient settlement
at Ajdovski gradec whose name in the local tradition
E'*11&:$18E&':3&636$%C&$;&6C':*F"1&*2:"I*'"2'E- 70 as
]311&"E&*'E&I"E*2&]*':&8"%,&]"'3%&l"'&]:*F:&C$B&E'$>&*;&
you have the eyes for this’ 71 form the basis for considering
a ritual offering of prestigious weapons as an
*2'3O%"1&>"%'&$;&"&,2*O:'1C&'%"8*'*$2-&>3%@"838&]*':&
Christian ideology.
Acknowledgments
I would like to express my gratitude to Dr. Timotej
72*;*F-& !"O.& 5$6"(& M"I3%O$#-& 5$6"(& D"+"%& "28&
Polona Bitenc from the National Museum of Slovena
for their comprehensive support for the preparation
$;& ':*E& "%'*F13-& "E& ]311& "E& ;$%& ':3*%& @"1B"I13& *2;$%mation
on the find and the permission for publishing
the photography. Allow me also to thank to Dr.
/28%3#&H13'3%E,*-&4%.&)32#"6*2&â'B1"%&"28&W@"2&!"%*#"&
Hrovatin from the Institute of Archaeology ZRC SAZU
for their useful instructions and quotations given.
Summary
During the excavations of a Late Roman water
cistern at Ajdovski gradec near Sevnica in the
68" ,"'%"m',12E%8('-/0n"
ozemlju istrskega zaledja, in: Acta Histriae, 13/1 (2005), pp. 114–115.
71" a*&%'3,3"@AST9"?."!Q.

.& 3"#4-I;"& 0$28:!& -.$1-%"3"(& 93";-13$8*-& RVe&
H!&4$1':'"&!:;"L&/-&#:&/1"8-;:3&0%-!:%:/&0$4-
*-0"& q@X"& 0$& M"/:8=$**>L& >!:I;"#$& 3#:'$2$&
izdelavo v drugo polovico 14. stoletja ali prvo
;:*%*-3$&RY(&8*$1:*#"(
M%$+#:& 8:& #:& 2& 3"0$1& ."8>*:!& .B-%"13-/>L&
3"0$13#:3:!&.&2$4$L&3:42$!3$&.3"I1$&."%"4-&
."2:8*3:&$41$;-*2:(&9"&0$#"83-*:2&$."4#"&*:'"&
$4/%-*#"& #:& /1#>;3"& $0>8*:1$8*& 1$/"H-#:L& /-& 2&
;"8>&4:0$3-%"3#"&3-&B-1"&$B1#>4:3"&+:&2:;&8*$&
let. Po tem se obravnavana najdba bistveno
%".1-/>#:&$4&P>3/H-$3"13:'"&$%$+#"L&/-&#:&B-1$&
."%"4-& /"/%I3:'"& /$1-& %".1$'"& +:& 4:0$3-%"3$&
$.(& $42%+:3$& 2& '%"#8/:& 2$43#"/:& "1-& 8/%-*$& 2&
8*:3:&8*"3$2"3#8/-=&$B#:/*$2(
A%2"&!-8:1&#:L&4"&'%:&."&$%$+#:L&/-&'"&#:&."43-
#-&1"8*3-/&8/%-1&2&2$43$&#"!$&.&3"!:3$!L&4"&'"&
23$2-;&0%-4$B-(&@&$B%"23"2"3:!&0%-!:%>&B-&B-1&
."%"4-&1"+#:'"&42-'"&!:;&1"=/$&B$4-8-&0%-2:."3&
.&2%2-H$L&/-&#:&0$&4:13:!&>0"4>&2$43:&'1"4-3:&
0%$0"41"b&3:0%-#:*:3L&"&'1:4:&3"&!"#=3$&'1$B--
3$&0$28:!&-.2:41#-2&0"&B-&B-1&*>4-&0$*$0&3"&4"=(
K"& 4%>'-& 8*%"3-& 8-& *:!";3$& 2$43$& #"!$& 2&
8*"%$4"23-& 3"8:1B-3-& .1"=/"& 0%:48*"21#"!$&
/$*& 0%$8*$%& %-*>"13:& 4"%-*2:& !:;"L& $%$+#"L& /-&
je imelo od iznajdbe v srednji bronasti dobi
naprej poudarjen statusni in simbolni pomen.
Zbiralnik kot kraj kultnega deponiranja ima
"3"1$'-#:&+:&2&!1"#I-&+:1:.3-&4$B-&-3&%-!8/:!&
$B4$B#>L& 3"#4-I;3:& $/$1-I;-3:& 0"& '"& >2%I;"#$&
2& /"*:'$%-#$& 2$43-=& 3"#4B(& A$& 4"3:8& 8/$%"#&
splošno sprejeti tezi se je v kontinentalni Ev-
%$0-& .& ,%-*"38/-!& $*$;#:!& -3& D/"34-3"2-#$&
*%"4-H-#"& 4:0$3-%"3#"& $%$+#"& 2& 2$4$& 0%:3:81"&
tudi v visoki srednji vek in naprej.
K"& $=%"3#"3#:& 8*"%-=& 0$'"38/-=& -.%$;-1& 4$&
/$3H"& 8%:43#:'"& 2:/"L& 3:& '1:4:& 3"& 3#-=$2$&
*:!:1#3$& 3:.4%>+1#-2$8*& 8& /%I;"38*2$!L& 0$1:'&
0$8*"21#"3#"&H:%/2"&3"&8*"%:#I-=&/>1*3-=&!:8*-=&
$0$."%#"#$& *>4-& 0%:0$2:4-& ;"I;:3#"& 3"%"23-=&
P:3$!:3$2(&
QVmmZQVmY-& "2& *2'"F'& D"'3& !38*3@"1& E]$%8& "28& "&
shattered ceramic bowl were found. These two finds
were completely isolated from the rest of the material
discovered at the site. Due to the characteristics of
':3&E]$%8&]:*F:-&"FF$%8*2O&'$&_",3E:$''-&%3>%3E32'E&
"&F1"EE*F"1&E]$%8&$;&':3&EBI'C>3&sGW"-&]3&F"2&"EEB63&
that the sword was made in the second half of the
14 th century or in the first quarter of the 15 th century.
The presence of the weapon in a half buried cis-
'3%2-&;B11&$;&]"'3%-&*E&$I@*$BE&':3&%3EB1'&$;&"&831*I3%"'3&
decision. In order to clarify the circumstances of this
find we must consider the location of the site which
at the time of the sword being deposited had not been
inhabited for several hundreds of years. In this aspect
this find considerably differs from functional weap-
$2E& ]:*F:-& ;$%& $23& %3"E$2& $%& "2$':3%-& :"8& "1%3"8C&
I332& 83>$E*'38-& ':%$]2& *2'$& F"E'13& ]311E& $%& :*8832&
into the walls of residential buildings.
The first thought that comes to mind is that this
weapon was hid by its last owner into the water cistern
to be recovered at a later time. In this case the
sword could have been tied to a rope which would
:"@3&;"F*1*'"'38&*'E&%3F$@3%Cp&:$]3@3%-&*'&*E&>$EE*I13&
that the rope decayed after the level of water had
83F1*238.& /1E$& ;3"E*I13-& C3'& B2>13"E"2'-& ]$B18& :"@3&
been breath-hold dive since the level of water was not
very high.
_2& ':3& $':3%& :"28-& ':3& 8"%,& ]"'3%& *2& "& F*E'3%2&
in an ancient settlement could easily be imagined
"E& "& >1"F3& $;& %*'B"1& $;;3%*2O& $;& E]$%8E-& "& ]3">$2&
]:*F:&E*2F3&*'E&*2@32'*$2&*2&':3&!*8813&)%$2+3&/O3&
had had a strong rank and symbolic meaning. A
cistern as a place of a cult deposition is not a new
phenomenon; its analogies can be found already in
the Late Iron Age and Roman Period. Due to the circumstances
of the find it belongs to the category of
water finds. According to today’s commonly accepted
thesis the tradition of weapon deposition into wa-
'3%-&>%"F'*F38&*2&F$2'*232'"1&3-&':3&)%*'*E:&WE13E&
"28&NF"28*2"@*"-&]"E&'%"2E;3%%38&"1E$&'$&':3&b*O:&
Middle Ages and thereafter.
Apart from the establishing of churches on old cult
E*'3E-& ':3& >%$:*I*'*$2& $;& ]$%E:*>>*2O& 2"'B%"1& >:3nomena
also reminds us of the preservation of Pagan
traditions until the end of the Middle Ages regardless
of its basic non-compatibility with Christianity.
M I L I T A R Y H I S T O R Y ! 159

160 ! V O J A Š K A Z G O D O V I N A

S512("-7&71>)5"#5617&-7&I*$,"-'#":&,&4$0-":&
'1"2-+":&,"#6&
Fortification Architecture in Slovenia in the Late
Middle Ages
!
U0,*"%"#
[X# * ' S % _% .
u. d. i. a., u. d. u. zg., kustos za starejšo arhitekturo na Slovenskem
%C`AN4FN;C>A'@;\42'(2;69'_1N'>6'];aA>4'79'8:::'(2;6W'AH1CDO6M6EGH;4OND6C>4ODOA
D:8*"2:/& $B%"23"2"& .3";-13$8*-& >*%4B:-
3:&"%=-*:/*>%:&3"&D1$2:38/:!&2&0$.3:!&8%:-
43#:!& 2:/>(& i%:& ."& "3"1-.$& %".2$#"& '%"#:3-=&
8*%>/*>%L& /-& 8$& $4& R\(& 4$& RS(& 8*$1:*#"& 3"8*"1:&
."&2"%$2"3#:&;1$2:I/-=&B-2"1-I;L&8*%"*:I/-=&"1-&
*"/*-;3$& 0$!:!B3-=& *$;/L& 0$*-L& 0%:=$4$2& -3&
4%>'-=&0$!:!B3-=&$B#:/*$2(
!"#$%&'( )'*'+',& >*%4B:3"& "%=-*:/*>%"L& D1$-
2:3-#"L&0$.3-&8%:43#-&2:/L&'%"4$2-L&8"!$8*"3-L&
!:8*3"&$B.-4#"L&0%$*-*>%I/-&*"B$%-L&%$!"3-/"L&
'$*-/"L&*>%I/-&20"4-(
c*%4B:3"& "%=-*:/*>%"& #:& 3"8*"#"1"& 2& 28:=&
$B4$B#-=& .'$4$2-38/:'"& %".2$#"& /$*& 8%:48*2$&
."& $B%"!B$& 1#>4-& -3& 3#-=$2:'"& 0%:!$+:3#"& 2&
%".1-;3-=& 80$0"4-=& -3& 01:3-13-=& 0$=$4-=(& A$-
!:!B3:#I:& >*%4B:& 8$& 3"8*"#"1:& 28:1:#L& /"4"%&
8*"&*$&."=*:2"1"&0$1-*-;3-&-3&$B%"!B3-&0$1$+"#&
4:+:1:L& %"81:& 8$& 3"& 8*%"*:I/$& 0$!:!B3-=& -3&
3"%"23$&."2"%$2"3-=&1$/"H-#"=(&,-1:&8$&$4%".&
!$;-L& B$'"8*2"& -3& $/>8"& 3#-=$2-=& '%"4-*:1#:2(&
Slovenski prostor je zaznamovan z utrdbami.
K"&8*-;-I;>&!:4&2.=$4$!&-3&."=$4$!&*:%&8:-
2:%$!&-3&#>'$!&:2%$08/:&H:1-3:&8$&*>&8/$.-&;"8&
pogosto potekale razne napadane in branjene
!:#:(&C".H2:*&>*%4B:3:&"%=-*:/*>%:&#:&."*$&3"&
*:!&$.:!1#>&$0".:3&2&2:;&%".1-;3-=&$B4$B#-=(&
@&8$4$B3-&."2:8*-&8$&3"#B$1#&3"2.$;:&0%"2&8%:-
43#:2:I/:&>*%4B:L&/-&8$&8:&*>4-&'!$*3$&3"&28:=&
/$3H-=& 81$2:38/:'"& $.:!1#"& 3"#B$1#:& $=%"3--
1:L& ;:0%"2& 8$& '1:4:& 3"& 3:/4"3#:& 8*"3#:& $8*"1-&
Abstract
The article addresses the characteristics of fortification
architecture in Slovenia in the Late Middle
Ages. It is an analysis of stone or brick structures
83@31$>632'-&83E*O238&;%$6&':3&Q[ th to 16 th century
*2&$%83%&'$&>%$'3F'&"FF$66$8"'*$2&;"F*1*'*3E-&*6>$%-
'"2'&E'%"'3O*F&$%&'"F'*F"1&>$*2'E-&%$B'3E-&>"EE"O3E&"28&
other critical facilities.
Key words: P$%'*;*F"'*$2& "%F:*'3F'B%3-& N1$@32*"-&
D"'3& !*8813& /O3E-& F"E'13E-& 6$2"E'3%*3E-& F*'C& ]"11E-&
"2'*Z5B%,*E:&F"6>E-&`$6"23EdB3&"%'-&K$':*F-&5B%,*E:&
invasions.
Fortification architecture emerged in all periods
of historical development as a means for defence of
people and their assets through different series of
32O"O3632'E& "28& >1B283%E.& !$%3& E*O2*;*F"2'1C-& ;$%tifications
arose with the demand for political and
83;32E*@3& >$E*'*$2& $;& 1"28-& ">>3"%*2O& $2& E'%"'3O*F&
and naturally secure locations. They were a reflec-
'*$2&$;&':3&>$]3%-&]3"1':&"28&'"E'3&$;&':3*%&;$B28-
3%E.&)3']332&':3&3"E'&"28&]3E'-&':3%3&]3%3&F$2E'"2'1C&
changing borders throughout time. Fortification
architecture therefore flourished in different pe-
%*$8E& *2& ':3E3& 1"28E.& W2& F$2'36>$%"%C& >3%F3>'*$2-&
':3& 6$E'& ,2$]2& "%3& 638*3@"1& ;$%'*;*F"'*$2E-& ]:*F:&
are preserved in their material form throughout
N1$@32*"2&1"28E-&"1':$BO:&$21C&;%"O632'E&%36"*2&$;&
their former state. Forts were always architectures
of special significance. They were built to safeguard
>3$>13fE&%3E*832F3-&*2&E'%"'3O*F&"28&'"F'*F"11C&*6>$%-
'"2'&>$E*'*$2E-&%$B'3E-&F%$EE*2OE&"28&$':3%&*6>$%'"2'&
M I L I T A R Y H I S T O R Y ! 161

1:&P%"'!:3*-(&c*%4B:&8$&B-1:&28:1:#&"%=-*:/*>%:&
posebnega pomena. Zgrajene so bile za varo-
2"3#:& ;1$2:I/-=& B-2"1-I;L& 8*%"*:I/-=& "1-& *"/*-;-
3$&0$!:!B3-=&*$;/L&0$*-L&0%:=$4$2&-3&4%>'-=&
0$!:!B3-=& $B#:/*$2(& 6$*& *"/:& 8$& -!:1:& *>4-&
2:1-/&8-!B$13-&0$!:3L&/-&#:&0$'$8*$&H:1$&0%:-
8:'"1& 3#-=$2$& 4:#"38/$& $B%"!B3$& .!$+3$8*(&
c*%4B:&8$&B-1:&28:1:#&8-!B$1-&!$;-(&A$'$8*$&8$&
3"8*"#"1:&2&+:1#-&0$&%"./".$2"3#>&!$;-&-3&>'1:-
4"&3#-=$2-=&'%"4-*:1#:2(&5:'"&0$!:3"&>*%4B&8*"&
se nenazadnje dobro zavedala tudi Janez Vaj-
/"%4& @"12"8$%& -3& i:$%'& )"**=s>8& @-8H=:%L& /-&
8*"&'%"4$2:L&>*%#:3"&!:8*"&-3&*%':L&8"!$8*"3:&
in nekatere pomembnejše protiturške tabore v
Rk(& 8*$1:*#>& 8-8*:!"*-;3$& >0$4"B1#"1"& 2& 82$#-=&
*$0$'%"P8/-=& 4:1-=L& /-& 8$& ."#:1"& 4$B%I:3& 4:1&
ozemlja današnje Slovenije. 1
@&8%:43#:!&2:/>&8:&#:&%".!"=&'%"43#:&>*%4B&
3"&$.:!1#>&4"3"I3#:&D1$2:3-#:&.";:1&I:1:&0$&RR(&
8*$1:*#>L&;:0%"2&#:&.3"3-=&*>4-&3:/"#&>*%4B&-.&
.'$43:#I:'"&$B4$B#"(&K"#0%:#&8$&.";:1-&3"8*"#"-
*-&>*%#:3-&'%"4$2-b&80%2"&0%:428:!&2&0$!:!B-
3-=& P:24"13-=& 8%:4-I;-=L& 3"& 8:4:+-=& 2-8$/:'"&
82:*3:'"&-3&H:%/2:3:'"&01:!8*2"(&A$.3:#:L&/$&
1 Za splošne preglede srednjeveške utrdbene arhitekture na Slovenskem: Cene
Avguštin, Kranj; Naselbinski razvoj od prazgodovine do 20. stoletja, Ljubljana
@AAAL"M/'/"U&E*(),'9"7/)/8"G8/3,39"4."&."d8D%',W/09"Enciklopedija Slovenije, 14,
Ljubljana 2000, str. 86–95; Stane Bernik, Organizem slovenskih obmorskih mest;
Koper, Izola, Piran9"Z-*D$-%'%"@ABSL"a2V/"M*819"H/$/V",)%$,-%'41,>"E8%+D/',12&"'%"
u)%-/841/0"&"@B.",'"@:."4)2$/)-*9"&f"Zbornik za umetnostno zgodovino, Nova vrsta
VII"_@AB!b9"4)8."K:O:QL"a2V/"M*819"Trgi in mesta na slovenskem Štajerskem; Urba-
%3:2#$B)%'!32'-!$3!*#7)1(#![TD!-13,)1&#9"F%8,D28"@AA@L"7/)/8"],4)/89 Arhitektura
slovenskih protiturških taborov, Ljubljana 1975; Ivan Franke, Burgen Ortsanlagen
und Typen von Bauernhäusern, v: Die Österreichisch-ungarische Monarchie in
Wort und Bild; Kärnten und Krain, Wien 1891; Bogo Grafenauer, HA)7('!6932'!%#!
Slovenskem, Ljubljana 1962; Ivan Komelj, Utrdbena arhitektura 16. stoletja v Sloveniji,
v: Zbornik za umetnostno zgodovino, Nova vrsta VII (1965), str. 73–92; Dušan
Kos, Med gradom in mestom; Odnos kranjskega, slovenještajerskega in koro-
%3E32'38& F"E'13E-&
;$%'*;*38&'$]2E&"28&EdB"%3E-&6$2"E'3%*3E&"28&E$63&
more important anti-Turkish “tabors” in the 17th
F32'B%C-&*2&':3*%&'$>$O%">:*F&]$%,E&]:*F:&F">'B%38&
most of present day Slovenia. 1
In the Middle Ages in the area of present day
N1$@32*"-&IB*18*2O&$;&;$%'E&I3O"2&";'3%&':3&'B%2&$;&':3&
QQ':&F32'B%C-&"1':$BO:&':3%3&"%3&,2$]2&;$%'E&;%$6&
3"%1*3%&>3%*$8E.&W2*'*"11C&':3%3&]3%3&;$%'*;*38&F"E'13E-&
first appearing in important feudal centres of tem-
>$%"1& "28& F:B%F:& 2$I*1*'C.& D"'3%-& ]:32& ;3B8"1& E$F*-
3'C&I3O"2&'$&$%O"2*E3&*'E31;-&F"E'13E&I3O"2&'$&%*E3&*2&
places where only courts were previously located. In
N1$@32*"-&':3&IB*18*2O&$;&F"E'13E&:*'&;B11&E]*2O&*2&':3&
QU':&F32'B%C&"28&]"E&F1$E31C&%31"'38&'$&F$2E'%BF'*$2&
of counts estates and upper class estates. Initiating
the construction of castles were feudal lords who
had their headquarters outside of land borders. All
1 For general overview of medieval fortifying architecture in Slovenia: Cene Avguštin,
Kranj; Naselbinski razvoj od prazgodovine do 20. stoletja, Ljubljana 1999;
M/'/"U&E*(),'9"7/)/8"G8/3,39"4."&."d8D%',W/09"Enciklopedija Slovenije, 14, Ljubljana
2000, p. 86–95; Stane Bernik, Organizem slovenskih obmorskih mest; Koper, Izola,
Piran9"Z-*D$-%'%"@ABSL"a2V/"M*819"728),2'"2J"v)%$,%'"D*,$+/84",'"Z2X/8"N)P8,%",'"@B)>"
and 17th century, in: Zbornik za umetnostno zgodovino, Nova vrsta VII (1965), str.
K:O:QL"a2V/"M*819"Trgi in mesta na slovenskem Štajerskem; Urbanogradbeni oris
$3!*#7)1(#![TD!-13,)1&#9"F%8,D28"@AA@L"7/)/8"],4)/89"Arhitektura slovenskih protiturških
taborov, Ljubljana 1975; Ivan Franke, Burgen Ortsanlagen und Typen von
Bauernhäusern, in: Die Österreichisch-ungarische Monarchie in Wort und Bild;
Kärnten und Krain, Wien 1891; Bogo Grafenauer, HA)7('! 6932'! %#! C,3.)%-()A,
Ljubljana 1962; Ivan Komelj, Fortifyed archictecture of 16th century in Slovenia,
in: Zbornik za umetnostno zgodovino, Nova vrsta VII (1965), p. 73–92; Dušan Kos,
Med gradom in mestom; Odnos kranjskega, slovenještajerskega in koroškega
9,)A-1.#!$3!:2#$3.!'%!A)

9'$%3#-&'%"4&3"4&@-0"2$b&0$8/>8&%:/$38*%>/H-#:&2&R\(&8*$1:*#>&
>*%#:3:'"&'%"4>&-.&RV(&8*$1:*#"b&"/8$3$!:*%-;3"&%-8B"(
Upper castle above Vipava. Reconstruction attempt of 14th cen-
'B%C&;$%'*;*38&F"E'13&;%$6&QU':&F32'B%C.&/a$2$63'%*F&8%"]*2O.
8:&#:&P:24"13"&4%>+B"&28:&B$1#&$%'"3-.-%"1"L&0"&
8$&'%"4$2-&3"8*"#"1-&*>4-&*"!L&/#:%&8$&0%:#&0$stavljali
le dvore. Na Slovenskem se je gradnja
'%"4$2&%".!"=3-1"&2&RV(&8*$1:*#>&-3&#:&B-1"&*:-
83$&0$2:."3"&.&-.'%"43#$&'%$P$28/-=&0$8:8*:2&
-3&8%:4-I;&.:!1#-I/-=&'$80$8*:2(&A$B>43-/-&'%"-
4:3#&'%"4$2&8$&B-1-&2:1-/-&P:24"1H-L&/-&8$&-!:1-&
82$#:& 8:4:+:& .>3"#& 4:+:13-=& !:#"(& @& $B4$B#>&
$4&RR(&4$&Re(&8*$1:*#"&8$&3"8*"1-&*"/$&%:/$;&28-&
srednjeveški gradovi na Slovenskem. V Tako kot
3"#2:;#-&4:1&4%>'-=&'%"4$2&2&$8%:43#-&F2%$0-&8$&
-!:1-&$B$43$&$B1-/$L&."&/"*:%$&#:&B-1$&.3";-13$L&
4"&#:&0%-B1-+3$&Z&!:*%$2&2-8$/&.-4&.&$B%"!B-
3-!&=$43-/$!&3"&2%=>&$B4"#"1&3$*%"3#:&'%"#-
8/$&42$%-I;:&8&8*"3$2"3#8/$&8*"2B$&_&0"1"H-#:!&
in cisterno za vodo. 3 &51$%-83"&01$8/:2L&3"&/"-
*:%-& 8$& B-1:& 0$.-4"3:& *"/I3:& '%"#8/:& ."83$2:L&
#:&B-1"&$B-;"#3$&0%-B1-+:/&0%"2$/$*3-/"L&."%"4-&
prilagajanja naravni izoblikovanosti zemlji-
I;"&3"&2.0:*-3"=&0"&8$&2&/$3;3-&$B1-/-&0%"2--
1$!"&3"8*"1:&.:1$&%".1-;3:&$B1-/:&*1$%-8$2L&$4&
Q" N)2?%8"@A::L"N%?%3"QRRK.
K" 78&,"8%W,412&%$=,"E8%+2&"'%"N$2&/'41/0"42"W%"2D2+'/"W%4'2&/"*?28%D$-%$,")*+,",W8%W"
m1%4)/$'/"W%4'2&/n.
9'$%3#-&'%"4&3"4&@-0"2$b&0$8/>8&%:/$38*%>/H-#:&$/$1-&1:*"&RYTT&
0%$*-*>%I/$&>*%#:3:'"&8%:43#:2:I/:'"&'%"#8/:'"&/$!01:/8"b&
"/8$3$!:*%-;3"&%-8B"(
Upper castle above Vipava. Reconstruction attempt from around
1500 A.D. anti-Turkish fortified medieval castle complex. Axonometric
drawing.
medieval castles in Slovenia were built between the
11 th and 13 th centuries. U Similar to most other castles
*2&F32'%"1&3-&':3C&:"8&"&F*%FB6;3%32'*"1&;$%6.&
An approx. 8m high wall with a defensive corridor
$2& '$>& ]"E& 'C>*F"1-& EB%%$B28*2O& "2& *2'3%2"1& F"E'13&
C"%8& ]*':& %3E*832'*"1& IB*18*2O-& >%3E32F3& F:"6I3%&
and cistern with water. 3 The ground plan’s plane on
]:*F:&':*E&E'C13&$;&F"E'13&]"E&F$2E'%BF'38-&]"E&BEB"1ly
rectangle shaped. This was because of adjustments
'$&':3&2"'B%"1&E:">3&$;&':3&IB*18*2O&E*'3-&$2&E1$>*2O&
grounds the final shape of ground plans were very
8*;;3%32'-&;%$6&"FFB%"'3&%3F'"2O13E&'$&3%%$23$BE&>$1ygons.
Presence chambers in this style of plans were
constructed on rectangular ground plans. Beside the
ground floor lay two more floors vertically separated
with level wooden beam ceilings. The ground
floor in the presence chamber was not directly linked
with the floors above and it was used for storage of
'$$1E-&]3">$2E-&O%"*2&"28&I"%%31E&F$2'"*2*2O&]"'3%&
and wine. The floors where the living quarters were
situated were accessible through outer wooden stairs.
Q" N)2?%8"@A::L"N%?%3"QRRK.
K" ],84)"8/4/%8=>/84"2J"=%4)$/4",'"N$2&/',%"*4/+"/j?8/44,2'"m40%$$"=%4)$/"+/4,E'n"J28"
circumference design.
M I L I T A R Y H I S T O R Y ! 163
Vse fotografije, risbe in makete//11&>:$'$O%">:C-&8%"]*2OE&"28&6$831EL&X'$%&D"0";

0%"2-13-=& 0%"2$/$*3-/$2& 4$& 3:0%"2-13-=& 0$1-gonov.
Palaciji v okviru zasnov te vrste so bili
pozidani na pravokotnem tlorisu in so poleg
0%-*1-;#"& $B8:'"1-& I:& 42:& 3"48*%$0#-b& :*"+:& 8$&
bile med seboj vertikalno predeljene z ravnimi
1:8:3-!-&*%"!$23-!-&8*%$0-(&A%-*1-;#:&2&0"1"H-#>&
$B-;"#3$&3-&B-1$&3:0$8%:43$&0$2:."3$&.&3"4-
8*%$0#:!"&-3&8$&'"&>0$%"B1#"1-&."&8=%"3#:2"3#:&
$%$4#"L&$%$+#"L&+-*"&*:%&8$4$2&.&2$4$&-3&2-3$!(&
K"48*%$0#-L&2&/"*:%-=&8$&B-1-&>%:#:3-&8*"3$2"3#-
8/-&0%$8*$%-L&8*"&B-1-&4$8*$03-&0%:/&.>3"3#-=&1:-
8:3-=& 8*$03-I;(& MB& 0"1"H-#>& 8$& 3"& $B.-4"3:!&
42$%-I;>& 8*"1"& I:& 3-./"& 0$!$+3"& 0$81$0#"L&
naslonjena na obodno obzidje. Pomembnejši
K$2-&'%"4&@-*"3#:b&0$8/>8&%:/$38*%>/H-#:&$/$1-&1:*"&RYTT&0%$*--
*>%I/$&>*%#:3:'"&'%"4>&-.&R\(&8*$1:*#"b&!"/:*"(
New castle Vitanje. Reconstruction attempt around 1500 A.D. of
anti-Turkish fortified castle from 14th century. Model.
gradovi so imeli tudi visok obrambni stolp –
B:%'P%-4L&/-&#:&B-1&$0".$2"13-H"L&#:4%$&'%"#8/:&
$B%"!B:& -3& ."43#:& 0%-B:+"1-I;:& 2& :3:!L& 4:1-
3$&0"&*>4-&8=%"!B"&."&+-2-1"&-3&0%:4!:*:&*:%&
stanovanjski prostor. Vsaka grajska stavba je
-!:1"&I:&0%:4'%"4#:L&/#:%&#:&B-1&'$80$4"%8/-&4:1&
'%"#8/:'"&/$!01:/8"(&A%:4'%"4#"L&/-&8$&B-1"&0$&
2:;-3-&."2"%$2"3"&1:&.&1:8:3-!-&0"1-8"4"!-L&8$&
B-1"&$B-;"#3$&2&3:0$8%:43-&B1-+-3-&$B.-4"3:'"&
'%"#8/:'"& #:4%"L& 0$'$8*$& $B& '1"23-& 4$8*$03-&
0$*-(&D*"2B:&2&0%:4'%"4#-=&8$&B-1:&1:8:3:L&."*$&
8:&3-/#:%&3-8$&$=%"3-1:&2&8%:43#:2:I/-&$B1-/-( 4
A$!:3"& 8%:43#:2:I/-=& '%"4$2& /$*& -.%".-*$&
T" N%?%3"QRRK9"4)8."@KO@!.
164 ! V O J A Š K A Z G O D O V I N A
)3E*83&':3&>%3E32F3&F:"6I3%&$2&':3&]"1138Z*2&C"%8-&
]3%3&1$]&EBIE*8*"%C&E'%BF'B%3E-&13"2*2O&$2&F*%FB6ferential
walls. More important castles had a high
defensive tower called a Bergfried. This was used
"E&"2&$IE3%@"'*$2&>$*2'-&':3&F$%3&$;&':3&F"E'13fE&83-
;32F3&*2F1B8*2O&"E&"&;*2"1&%3E$%'-&>"%'1C&"E&E'$%"O3&;$%&
food and objects and sometimes also as living quar-
'3%E.&&-.&Re(&8*$1:*#"b&!"/:*"(
Castle Dobrna. Reconstruction attempt of a 13 th -century castle
that was rebuilt in the 15 th century.
The significance of medieval castles as explicit defensive
architecture should not be overestimated.
0"E'13E&]3%3-&"I$@3&"11-&"86*2*E'%"'*@3&"28&%3E*832-
'*"1&IB*18*2OE-&BE38&"1E$&;$%&$%O"2*+"'*$2&$;&EB>>1C&
and defence of a particular territory. Their defensive
role was only as much as necessary for protection in
given circumstances. Most castles did not hold regular
military units. The actual military significance of
castles was therefore often of less importance than we
6"C&*6"O*23&*'&'$8"C.&P%$6&"&83;32E*@3&@*3]>$*2'-&
castles also had great symbolic value as founders of
F"E'13E&$;'32&]"2'38&'$&E:$]&':3*%&>$]3%-&*2;1B32F3&
and right to their disposal of certain territory. 5
T" N%?%3"QRRK9"?."@KO@!.
5 Cf. Zeune 1996.

$B%"!B3:& "%=-*:/*>%:& 3:& '%:& 0%:H:3#:2"*-(&
Gradovi so bili predvsem utrjene upravne in
8*"3$2"3#8/:& 8*"2B:L& >0$%"B3:& *>4-& ."& $%'"-
3-.-%"3#:&$8/%B:&-3&$B%"!B:&4$1$;:3:'"&$.:-
!1#"(&K#-=$2"&$B%"!B3"&21$'"&#:&B-1"&1:&*$1-/$&
0$>4"%#:3"L&/$1-/$%&#:&B-1"&3>#3$&."&."2"%$2"-
3#:& 2& 4"3-=& $/$1-I;-3"=(& K"& 2:;-3-& '%"4$2& 3-&
B-1$&8*"13-=&2$#"I/-=&0$8"4/(&O:#"38/-&2$#"I/-&
0$!:3&'%"4$2&#:&B-1&."*$&0$'$8*$&!"3#I-L&/$*&8-&
predstavljamo danes. Gradovi pa so imeli tudi
.& $B%"!B3-=& 2-4-/$2& 2:1-/& 8-!B$13-& 0$!:3b&
'%"4-*:1#-&'%"4$2&8$&0$'$8*$&+:&3"&4"1:;&=$*:1-&
0$>4"%-*-&82$#$&!$;&-3&201-2&*:%&0%"2-H$&4$&4$-
1$;:3:'"&$.:!1#"( 5
D*"%-&'%"4&3"4&`:1#:!b&0$8/>8&%:/$38*%>/H-#:&0$4$B:&2-8$/$[&-3&
0$.3$8%:43#:2:I/:'"&%"I;:3:'"&'%"#8/:'"&/$!01:/8"b&!"/:*"(
MB& /$3H>& Re(& 8*$1:*#"& 8:& #:& '%"4-*:2& 3$2-=&
gradov na Slovenskem skoraj povsem ustavi-
1"(&A$'1"2-*3"&2.%$/"&."&*$&8*"&B-1"&4$/$3;3$&
2.0$8*"21#:3"& !%:+"& .:!1#-I/-=& '$80$I;-3& -3&
-.;%0"3:& !$+3$8*-& ."& /$1$3-."H-#$(& K"4"1#3#:&
4%$B1#:3#:& 0$8:8*-& 3-& B-1$& 2& -3*:%:8>& 2:1-/-=&
P:24"1H:2L&/-&8*"&8:&#-!&*"/$&!"3#I"1"&!$;&-3&
201-2(&D&0%:0$2:4#$&'%"43#:&3$2-=&'%"4$2&/$*&
8:4:+:2& 3$2-=& .:!1#-I/-=& '$80$8*:2& #:& 2-I#:&
01:!8*2$& ."*%1$& 0$8/>8:& 3-+#-=& !-3-8*:%-"1$2&
0$& 2:;#-& 82$B$4-L& $8"!$82"#"3#>& -3& 3#-=$2-=&
1"8*3-=&'%"4$2-=(&D&0%:0$2:4#$&'%"43#:&3$2-=&
!" 78,0."Y/*'/"@AAB.
At the end of the 13 th & F32'B%C-& IB*18*2O& $;& 23]&
castles stopped almost completely. The main reason
was the established network of noble lands and
exhausted possibilities for colonisation. Further
breaking of property was not an interest of big feu-
8"1&1$%8E-&]:$E3&>$]3%&"28&*2;1B32F3&]3%3&83F%3"Eing.
With a prohibition on building new castles as
"& >1"F3& $;& 2$I13& 1"28E-& :*O:3%& 2$I*1*'C& EB>>%3EE38&
"''36>'E& $;& ':3& 1$]3%& 6*2*E'%C& ;$%& 6$%3& ;%338$6-&
emancipation and their own castles. Lower nobility
were condemned to live in unfortified castles or
'$&E3%@3&*2&F"E'13E&$;&:*O:3%&2$I*1*'C.&0$2E3dB32'1C-&
one of the main building tasks between the 13 th and
15 th & F32'B%*3E-& ]"E& IB*18*2O& $;& B2;$%'*;*38& F$B%'E. 6
_18&F"E'13&"I$@3&031#3.&`3F$2E'%BF'*$2&"''36>'&$;&':3&*6"O3&$;&"&
late medieval castle complex. Model.
It is interesting that in the 14 th & F32'B%C-& $21C& %"%3&
Romanic castles were objects of serious building re-
F$2E'%BF'*$2E.&_21C&':3&6$E'&*6>$%'"2'&F"E'13E-&EBF:&
"E& 0"E'13& K$%*A,$-& 7$2#*F3& 031#3-& G*>"@"-& K$%*F"-&
j"1832I3%,&*2&K$%32#E,"&$%&â'3I3%,&*2&M$'%"2#E,"-&
in the 14 th &F32'B%C-&O"*238&23]&$B'3%&83;32E*@3&]"11E.&
This moved the centre of defensive capabilities from
the residential core outward. The core then formed
new residential buildings.
The 13 th and 14 th &F32'B%*3E&]3%3-&"I$@3&"11-&>3%*ods
of growth and prosperity of medieval cities and
market settlements that gradually overtook part of
B" 78,0."N)2?%8"@A::9"4)8."@Q!O@K@L"v&%'"N)2?%89"U8=>,)/1)*84P0D2$,1",'"0,))/$%$)/8$,chen
Höfen Sloweniens, in: Symbole des Alltags – Alltag der Symbole; Festschrift
für Harry Kühnel zum 65. Geburtstag, Graz 1992, p. 147–169; Kos 1994, p. 9 pict.,
@Q!O@QS9"Q@:L"#28%W+"F%1%82&,39"e/4),02'P"2J"E2)>,=")2X/8"G/D/$-"%D2*)"8/4,+/'tial
culture, in: Etnolog,"!Bg!"_@AA!b9"?."@TKOQR!L"N%?%3"QRRK9"?."!:OB@.
M I L I T A R Y H I S T O R Y ! 165

'%"4$2&#:&B-1$&3-+#:&01:!8*2$&$B8$#:3$&3"&+--
21#:3#:&3"&3:>*%#:3-=&42$%-=&"1-&0"&3"&81>+:3#:&
3"&'%"4$2-=&2-I#:'"&01:!8*2"(&9"*$&#:&0$8*"1"&
:3"& $4& *:!:1#3-=& '%"4B:3-=& 3"1$'& $4& Re(& 4$&
RY(& 8*$1:*#"& '%"43#"& .-4"3-=& 3:>*%#:3-=& 42$rov.
6 &9"3-!-2$&#:L&4"&8$&2&R\(&8*$1:*#>&1:&%:4ko
pomembneje gradbeno posegali v starejše
romanske gradove. Le najpomembnejši izmed
3#-=L&/$*&'%"4&3"&i$%-;/:!L&6$3#-H:L&`:1#:L&@--
0"2"L& i$%-H"L& p"14:3B:%/& 3"& i$%:3#8/:!& "1-&
Q*:B:%/&3"&K$*%"3#8/:!&8$&+:&2&R\(&8*$1:*#>&4$-
B-1-& 3$2"& .>3"3#"& $B%"!B3"& $B.-4#"L& 8& ;-!:%&
8:&#:&*:+-I;:&$B%"!B3-=&80$8$B3$8*-&0%:3:81$&
-.&8*"3$2"3#8/:'"&#:4%"&3"2.2:3L&2&#:4%>&0"&8$&
nastala nova stanovanjska poslopja.
13. in 14. stoletje je bilo predvsem obdo-
B#:&%"8*-&-3&%".H2:*"&8%:43#:2:I/-=&!:8*3-=&-3&
*%I/-=&3"8:1B-3L&/-&8$&0$8*$03$&0%:2.:1:&*>4-&
4:1&$B%"!B3-=&P>3/H-#&!%:+:&>*%#:3-=&'%"4$2(&
Srednjeveške urbane naselbine so pogosto na-
8*"#"1:&3"&8*%"*:I/$&-.B%"3-=&1$/"H-#"=&8&8*"%$&
naselbinsko kontinuiteto in v povezavi s po-
!:!B3-!-&B1-+3#-!-&'%"4$2-(&):8*3:&3"8:1B--
3:&8$&B-1:&3"%"23$&."2"%$2"3:&28"#&.&%:;3-!&
*$/$!L&0$'$8*$&0"&8$&#-=&'%"4-1-&3"&3"%"23-=&
0$!$1-=L&$B&%:;3-=&$/1#>/-=L&2&8$*$;#>&%:/&"1-&
H:1$&3"&3"%"23-=&$*$/-=&7X.$1"L&6$0:%L&6$8*"njevica).
Mesta so le izjemoma nastala sredi
3"%"23$& 3:."2"%$2"3:& %"23-H:L& 30%(& D1$2:3#&
Gradec ali Slovenska Bistrica. 7 Obvezen del
!:8*3-=&3"8:1B-3&8$&B-1"&$B.-4#"(&M4&/$3H"&Re(&
8*$1:*#"L&/$&8:&#:&>2:1#"2-1"&8*%$'"&4:1-*:2&!:4&
!:8*-&-3&*%'-L&8$&0$8*"1"&!:8*3"&$B.-4#"&*:!:1#-
3"&.3";-13$8*&-4:3*-*:*:&8%:43#:2:I/-=&!:8*&3"&
D1$2:38/:!(& ,-1"& 8$& 3"#B$1#& .3";-1:3& '%"#:3-&
4:1&!:8*3-=&3"8:1B-3L&/-&8$&#-=&0$28$4&4$81:dno
in v celoti zgradili. Pri tem zlasti v 13. in
R\(&8*$1:*#>&3-&I1$&1:&."&$B%"!B3:L&"!0"/&0%:4-
28:!&."&0%"23$8*"*>83:&%".1$':L&*:!:1#:;:&3"&
3";:1>L&4"&!:8*3-&.%"/&$82$B"#"(&9&$B.-4#-&8$&
B-1"&!:8*"&1$;:3"&$4&P:24"13$&>%:#:3:'"&0$4:-
+:1#"L&/-&#-=&#:&$B4"#"1$(&@&3"80%$*#>&.&!:8*3-!-&
naselbinami so bili trgi praviloma odprti in le
2& 3:/"*:%-=& 0%-!:%-=& 0$28:!& $B.-4"3-(& c*%jene
mestne naselbine so svojim prebivalcem
ponujale varnost in zavetje pred zunanjimi
8$2%"+3-/-L&$/$1-;"3$!&$B;"83$&0%-B:+"1-I;:L&
0$*>#$;-!& *%'$2H:!& -3& *$2$%3-/$!& 0"& 2"%3$&
B" 78,0."N)2?%8"@A::9"4)8."@Q!O@K@L"v&%'"N)2?%89"U8=>,)/1)*84P0D2$,1",'"0,))/$%$)/8$,chen
Höfen Sloweniens, v: Symbole des Alltags – Alltag der Symbole; Festschrift
für Harry Kühnel zum 65. Geburtstag, Graz 1992, str. 147–169; Kos 1994, str. 9 sl.,
@Q!O@QS9"Q@:L"#28%W+"F%1%82&,39"78,3/&%'-/"E2)41/E%"4)2$?%"G/D$-%"2"4)%'2&%'-ski
kulturi, v: Etnolog,"!Bg!"_@AA!b9"4)8."@TKOQR!L"N%?%3"QRRK9"4)8."!:OB@.
:" 78,0."M*81"@AA@L"u*0,"@AAT.
166 ! V O J A Š K A Z G O D O V I N A
the defence of fortified castles. Medieval urban settlements
often originated on strategic locations with
old settlement continuity related to important nearby
castles. City settlements were naturally defended
by at least a river current and often built on natural
>*3%E& "'& %*@3%& 63"283%E-& *2& F$2;1B32F3& $;& %*@3%E& $%&
3@32&$2&2"'B%"1&*E1"28E&9W+$1"-&7$>3%-&7$E'"2#3@*F"=.&
_21C&"E&"2&3aF3>'*$2&]3%3&F*'*3E&;$%638&*2&':3&6*8dle
of naturally unprotected planes such as Slovenj
Gradec or Slovenska Bistrica. 7 An obligatory part
of city settlements were walls. From the end of the
13 th & F32'B%C& $2]"%8E-& ]:32& %*O$%$BE& 8*@*E*$2& ]"E&
>B'&*2'$&;$%F3&I3']332&F*'*3E&"28&6"%,3'&'$]2E-&':3&
city walls became basic characteristic of identity of
medieval towns in Slovenia. City walls were the most
significant and consistently built part of city settlements.
Particularly in the 13 th and 14 th centuries they
]3%32f'&IB*1'&$21C&;$%&83;32F3&%"':3%&I3F"BE3&$;&13O"1T
status reasons based on a principle that the city air
1*I3%"'3E.&j*':&]"11E-&':3&F*'*3E&]3%3&8*@*838&;%$6&':3&
feudally settled surrounding countryside. In distinc-
'*$2&;%$6&F*'C&E3''13632'E-&6"%,3'&'$]2E&]3%3-&"E&"&
%B13-& $>32& "28& $21C& *2& E$63& 3aF3>'*$2E& F$6>13'31C&
walled in. Fortified city settlements offered to their
*2:"I*'"2'Ef&E3FB%*'C&"28&E:31'3%&;%$6&$B'3%&3236*3E-&
at times safe refuge to others such as travelling mer-
F:"2'E.&W2&N1$@32*"-&':3&$21C&F*'C&':"'&8*8&2$'&:"@3&
]"11E&]"E&7$E'"2#3@*F"&2"&7%,*-&]:*F:&]"E&IB*1'&$2&
a river island. Defence in the early period of growing
cities was rather simple. Less naturally defended
>"%'E&$;&F*'*3E&]3%3&"'&;*%E'&3dB*>>38&$21C&]*':&8*'F:3E-&
trenches and wooden palisades. In the 13 th century
':3&;*%E'&F*'C&]"11E&]3%3&IB*1'&$;&E'$23&97$>3%-&W+$1"-&
D#BI1#"2"-& 7%"2#-& 7"62*,-& !"%*I$%-& H'B#-& N1$@32#&
K%"83F=-& ]:*F:& ]3%3& 6$83E'& "28& 2$'& ;$%'*;*38& ]*':&
defensive towers. Rather modest and badly fortified
walls had also founded city settlements in the 14 th
F32'B%C&9)%3(*F3-&_%6$(-&N1$@32E,"&)*E'%*F"-&â,$;#"&
D$,"-&á%2$631#-&D$(-&!3'1*,"-&M$@$&63E'$=.&_21C&"'&
the most important city settlements were walls fortified
earlier with angular towers on angular ground
plan and tower-like gatess. Walls of cities in open
plains were protected with artificial water ditches
and trenches. Tower-like old castles were sometimes
*2F1B838&*2&F*'C&]"11E.&_23&3a"6>13&*E&K%"E31&'$]3%&
in Slovenska Bistrica. Cities formed in the 15 th cen-
'B%C&:"8&I3''3%&;$%'*;*38&F*'C&]"11E&9031#3-&`"8$@1#*F"-&
G*J2#"&O$%"-&7%J,$-&7$A3@#3=-&]:*F:&]3%3&F$2E'%BF'38&
:" "MJ."M*81"@AA@L"u*0,"@AAT.

0%:B-2"1-I;:(&F4-3$&!:8*$&3"&D1$2:38/:!&B%:.&
$B.-4#"&#:&B-1"&6$8*"3#:2-H"&3"&6%/-L&.'%"#:3"&
3"&%:;3:!&$*$/>(&MB%"!B3:&3"0%"2:&8$&B-1:&
v zgodnji dobi rasti mest dokaj preproste. Naravno
slabše zavarovani deli mest so bili sprva
$0%:!1#:3-& 1:& .& #"%/-L& $/$0-& -3& 1:8:3-!-& 0"1-sadami.
V 13. stoletju so nastala prva zidana
!:8*3"&$B.-4#"&76$0:%L&X.$1"L&B1#"3"L&6%"3#L&
6"!3-/L&)"%-B$%L&A*>#L&D1$2:3#&i%"4:H?L&/-&0"&
so bila še dokaj skromna in niso bila utrjena
z obrambnimi stolpi. Razmeroma skromna in
slabo utrjena obzidja so imele tudi v 14. sto-
1:*#>& >8*"3$21#:3:& !:8*3:& 3"8:1B-3:& 7,%:+--
H:L& M%!$+L& D1$2:38/"& ,-8*%-H"L& Q/$P#"& 03-#8/-& H:%/2-(&
Takšne stolpe so gradili kot izrazite statusne
8-!B$1:L& "& 8$& B-1-& 2& 81$2:38/:!& 0%$8*$%>& 4$-
/"#& %:4/-(& X!"!$& #-=& 2& 6$0%>L& 6%"3#>L& )"%-boru
in na Ptuju. Pogosto so s popolnimi ali
vsaj delnimi obzidnimi sistemi obdajali tudi
*%':(& K"#!$'$;3:#I"& *%I/"& $B.-4#"L& 2:;-3"& +:&
-.& R\(& 8*$1:*#"L& 8$& -!:1-& O%"2$'%"4L& C$'"*:HL&
h"1:HL&)$/%$3$'L&A$8*$#3"L&5%+-;&-3&C"4$21#--
H"(& @& E#4$2I;-3-& #:& 0$.3$8%:43#:2:I/"& 3"8:1-
B-3"&3"8*"1"&3"&!:8*>&"3*-;3:&3"8:1B-3:&-3&#:&
2&H:1$*-&>0$I*:2"1"&-3&$B3$2-1"&"3*-;3$&$B.-4-
#:&6"8*%:(&A$4$B3$&8$&"3*-;3$&$B.-4#:&F!$3:&
4:13$&23$2-;&>0$%"B-1-&0%-&'%"4-*2-&8%:43#:2:-
I/:'"&$B.-4#"&$/$1-&K$2:'"&*%'"&2&B1#"3-L&2&
`:1#>&0"&#:&8%:43#:2:I/"&0"1";"&`:1#8/-=&'%$P$2&
3"8*"1"&3"&*:!:1#-=&."=$43-=&!:8*3-=&2%"*&"3-
*-;3:&`:1:-:(&):8*3"&-3&*%I/"&$B.-4#"&8$&2&4%>'-&
0$1$2-H-&RY(&8*$1:*#"&."%"4-&%"8*$;:&*>%I/:&3:-
2"%3$8*-&0%-4$B-2"1"&28:&2:;#$&$B%"!B3$&2:1#"-
2$(&M4&*$4&0$!:!B3$8*&>*%4BL&/-&8$&$4-'%"1:&
2:1-/$&21$'$&.1"8*-&2&RS(&8*$1:*#>(&):8*"&,%:+--
H:L&)"%-B$%L&C"4'$3"&-3&A*>#&8$&*"/%"*&4$B-1"&
with semicircular towers. Somewhat different was
the construction of Piran’s wall in the 15 th &F32'B%C-&
which was particularly high and fortified with many
towers. Part of the defensive role often overtook the
central defensive city tower at the parish church.
This kind of tower was built explicitly as a status
symbol but in the Slovene area was rare. We know
$;&':36&*2&7$>3%-&7%"2#-&!"%*I$%&"28&H'B#.&!"%,3'&
towns were often partly or completely surrounded by
]"11&ECE'36E.&5:3&O%3"'3E'&6"%,3'&'$]2&]"11E-&6$E'ly
from the 14 th & F32'B%C-& :"8& 4%"@$O%"8-& `$O"'3F-&
n"13F-&!$,%$2$O-&H$E'$#2"-&5%(*A&"28&`"8$@1#*F".&5:3&
1"'3&638*3@"1&E3''13632'&*2&/#8$@JA*2"&]"E&;$B2838&
on the ancient settlement and entirely renewed Antic
]"11E& $;& F"E'%B6.& N*6*1"%1C-& /2'*F& ]"11E& $;& BI1*F&$;&G32*F3-&'%*OO3%38&
extensive fortifying activities which encompassed
F*'*3E-& 6"%,3'& '$]2E-& F"E'13E& "28& "1E$& 6$2"E'3%*3E-&
churches and important villages. In connection with
anti-Turkish fortifying almost all late medieval cas-
'13E&;%$6&':3&QU th and 13 th centuries gained new outer
]"11E.& N*6*1"%1C-& >%3@*$BE1C& B2;$%'*;*38& F"E'13E& "28&
monasteries lying outside of city settlements were
also fortified. Turkish incursions were plundering
and not conquering by nature so at first the strong
military forts were not built. With strengthening they
'%*38&'$&E3FB%3&':3&3EE32'*"1E-&I3*2O&1*;3&"28&>%$>3%'C.&
Anti-Turkish forts from the late 15 th century and first
decades of the 16 th century still had medieval archi-
'3F'B%"1&F:"%"F'3%*E'*FE.&`$6"2*F&F"E'13&F$%3E-&'$]3%&
like castles and monasteries were surrounded with
%">*81C& F$2E'%BF'38& ]"11E-& ]:*F:& ]3%3& BEB"11C& EBIordinated
to the natural shape of the terrain. Not
until the first third of the 16 th &F32'B%C&$2]"%8E-&8*8&
building advance to the Renaissance fortified design
M I L I T A R Y H I S T O R Y ! 167

^:1-'-#:2&8*$10&3:/4"3#:&8:2:%3:&8*%"3-H:&!:8*3:'"&$B.-4#"&
)"%-B$%"L&0$.-4"3&$/$1-&1:*"&R\SY(
)B*1'&$;&E'$23&"%$B28&Q[RX&/.4.-&':3&á31*O3#&'$]3%&;%$6&':3&
former northern side of city walls of Maribor.
H:1$& 8*"*>8& 4:+:13-=& *%43#"2& -3& 8$& B-1"& *:!>&
0%-!:%3$& >*%#:3"& 8& 8$4$B3-!-& %:3:8"3;3-!-&
bastijami ter postala strateško zanimiva tudi
3"&4%+"23-&%"23-(&X.0$8*"21#:3$&8:2:%3$&8*%"nico
mestnega obzidja Maribora so denimo
okoli leta 1465 podobno kot v Piranu okrepili
s petimi visokimi obrambnimi stolpi.
V zadnji tretjini 15. stoletja so bili turški
20"4-&28:&0$'$8*:#I-L&0$&1:*>&RYTT&0"&8$&*>4-&
2$#3:&l"B8B>%+"3$2&.&,:3:I/$&%:0>B1-/$&80%$-
+-1:&$B8:+3$&>*%#:2"13$&4:#"23$8*L&/-&#:&."#:1"&
*"/$& !:8*"L& *%':& -3& '%"4$2:& /$*& *>4-& 8"!$-
8*"3:L&H:%/2:&-3&0$!:!B3:#I:&2"8-(&@&$/2-%>&
0%$*-*>%I/:'"&>*%#:2"3#"&8$&*"/$&%:/$;&28-&2--
8$/$8%:43#:2:I/-&'%"4$2-&-.&RV(&-3&Re(&8*$1:*#"&
4$B-1-&3$2"&.>3"3#"&$B.-4#"L&>*%#:2"1-&8$&*>4-&
prej neutrjene dvore in samostane zunaj me-
8*3-=&3"8:1B-3(&5>%I/-&20"4-&8$&B-1-&01:3-13-&-3&
3:&."2$#:2"13-L&."*$&80%2"&I:&3-8$&'%"4-1-&$B8:-
+3-=&-3&!$;3-=&2$#"I/-=&>*%4B(&
168 ! V O J A Š K A Z G O D O V I N A
$;&O3$63'%*F"11C&"FFB%"'3&E:">3E-&B2"8#BE'38&'$&':3&
2"'B%"1&E:">3&$;&'3%%"*2.&5:3&83E*O2-&3a'32E*$2&"28&
relation of anti-Turkish forts depended upon natural
F$28*'*$2E&$;&':3&'3%%"*2.&_23&$;&':3&I"E*F&313632'E&
of anti-Turkish fortifying was the walled-in pen. Pens
were secondary yards that provided protection to
mainly economic functions of the castle. Most of the
important activities from less fortified palace yards
were moved inside the walled-in pens. If the natural
F$28*'*$2E&32"I138&*'-&"11&"F'*@*'*3E&;%$6&':3&>"1"F3&
C"%8&]3%3&6$@38&'$&':3E3&3a'32E*@3&>32E&9b631#2*,-&
Šteberk). Usually they secured the pens with defensive
towers. Towers were at first rare but in the late
15 th century and in the 16 th & F32'B%C-& ':3C& I3F"63&
more frequent and in the significantly shaped image
of anti-Turkish walls. Towers were built of stone
$2& E36*F*%FB1"%-& F*%FB1"%& $%& "2OB1"%& O%$B28& >1"2E.&
_;'32&$2&':3&*2E*83&E*83&$;&]"11E&]3%3&$>32.&/&'C>*cal
element of anti-Turkish walls was the entrance
towers protected by ditches. Not until the 15 th and
16 th &F32'B%*3E-&]*':&':3*%&23]&]"11&F$%%*8$%E-&83;32-
E*@3&'$]3%E&"28&I"E'*$2E-&8*8&6"2C&F"E'13E&O"*2&':3*%&
distinctive shape. City and market town walls built
]*':&23]&'$]3%E-&"1E$&O"*238&':3&E:">3&$;&%3"1&;$%'E&
':%$BO:&':"'&'*63-&]:*F:&8*E'*2OB*E:38&':36&*2&':3&
F$B2'%CE*83.&/>"%'&;%$6&':3&F"E'13E-&':3E3&]"1138Z*2&
city designs from the 13 th and 14 th centuries were not
F$2'*2B38.&_21C&':3&6$E'&*6>$%'"2'&F*'*3E&1*,3&7$>3%-&
Piran and Ljubljana gained completely new walled-in
F$%%*8$%E-&]:*F:&EB%%$B2838&23]1C&O"*238&F*'C&"%3"E.
Market towns and village settlements joined fortified
cities and castles during the era of Turkish incur-
E*$2E-& "28& ]3%3& "1E$& >"%'1C& $%& 32'*%31C& EB%%$B2838&
with walls. This kind of fortifying was typical especially
for exposed settlements on the border regions
in the vicinity of “Vojna krajina” and the Republic
of Venice. In the surroundings of older castles at the
%*@3%&7$1>"&;$B%-&]"1138Z*2&"28&:3"@*1C&;$%'*;*38&23]&
6"%,3'&'$]2E&97$E'31-&H$1#"23-&G*2*F"&"28&H$I%3(#3=&
]3%3& ;$B2838-& ]:*F:& ]3%3-& "'& 13"E'& 8B%*2O& ':3& 3%"&
$;& 5B%,*E:& *2FB%E*$2E-& >3%6"232'1C& *2:"I*'38& "28&
also provided shelter for people from a broader area.
W2& M$'%"2#E,"& "'& ':3& %*@3%& `3,"-& E$63& $183%& F"E-
'13E&9e"I1"2*F"-&)*E'%*F"-&H%36&"28&â*132'"I$%=&:"8&
new heavily fortified walled in complexes founded
that were used as a refuge for people in that area.
In Vipavska dolina large fortified complexes were
;$B2838&"'&':3&$18&F"E'13&$;&G*>"@"-&':3&1$]3%&F"E'13&
$;&G*>"@"&"28&"'&á%2*A3.&W2&D$,@"&':3C&E3FB%38&':3&
core of the village settlement with smaller walls and
"&1"%O3-&%$B28&'$]3%.&N*6*1"%1C-&]*':&"&E6"113%&]"1138&
*2& F$6>13a-& ':3C& ;$%'*;*38& ':3& @*11"O3& F$%3& $;& 7"2"1&
"'&N$A".&_183%&@*11"O3&E3''13632'E&9â'"2#31-&â6"%'2$&

Z utrjevanjem so poskušali zavarovati pred-
28:!& 3"#0$!:!B3:#I:J& +-21#:3#:& -3& 0%:!$-
+:3#:(& A%$*-*>%I/:& >*%4B:& -.& /$3H"& RY(& -3& 0%-
2-=& 4:8:*1:*-#& RS(& 8*$1:*#"& 8$& -!:1:& I:& 0$28:!&
8%:43#:2:I/-& "%=-*:/*>%3-& .3";"#(& C$!"38/"&
'%"#8/"&#:4%"L&8*$10"8*:&42$%:&-3&8"!$8*"3:&8$&
$B4"#"1-&8&I-%$/-!-&$B.-43-!-&0$*:."!-L&.'%"#:-
3-!-&2&3"'1-H-&-3&$B-;"#3$&0$28:!&0$4%:#:3-!-&
naravni izoblikovanosti terena. Šele od tride-
8:*-=&1:*&RS(&8*$1:*#"&8$&0$8*$03$&'%"4-1-&3"0%:-
43:#I:& %:3:8"3;3:& >*%4B:3:& ."83$2:& ':$!:-
*%-;3$&0%"2-13-=&$B1-/L&/-&8:&3-8$&2:;&4$81:43$&
$.-%"1:& 3"& 3"%"23$& /$3P-'>%"H-#$& *:%:3"(& A%-&
'%"4$2-=&8$&B-1-&."83$2"L&%".8:+3$8*&-3&$43$8&
4$&$B8*$#:;-=&8:8*"2-3&0%$*-*>%I/-=&>*%4B:3-=&
8:8*"2-3&$42-83-&0%:428:!&$4&3"%"23-=&4"3$-
8*-(&F4:3&$4&$83$23-=&:1:!:3*$2&0%$*-*>%I/:'"&
utrjevanja gradov je obzidan obor. Obori so bili
8:/>34"%3"&42$%-I;"L&/-&8$&0%:428:!&2"%$2"1"&
'$80$4"%8/:&P>3/H-#:&'%"4>(&@"3#:&8$&0%:8:1-1-&
3"#0$!:!B3:#I:& 4:#"23$8*-& -.& 81"B$& >*%#:3-=&
0%:4'%"4-#(&^:&8$&3"%"23:&4"3$8*-&*$&$!$'$-
;"1:L&8$&2&%".8:+3:&$B$%:L&/$*&30%(&3"&l!:1#-
3-/>&"1-&Q*:B:%/>L&0%:8:1-1-&/"%&28:&4:#"23$8*-&
-.&0%:4'%"4#"(&MB$%:&8$&$B-;"#3$&."2"%$2"1-&.&
$B%"!B3-!-&8*$10-;-(&5-&8$&B-1-&80%2"&I:&%:4/-L&
ob koncu 15. in v 16. stoletju pa so postali zelo
pogosti in so pomembno sooblikovali podobo
0%$*-*>%I/-=& $B.-4-#(& D*$10-;-& 8$& B-1-& 0$.-4"3-&
3"& 0$1/%$+3-L& $/%$'1-& "1-& $'1"*-& *1$%-83-& 01$skvi.
Pogosto so bili odprti na notranjo stran
$B.-4#"(&93";-1:3&:1:!:3*&0%$*-*>%I/-=&$B.-4-#&
8$&B-1-&*>4-&.&#"%/-&."2"%$2"3-&2=$43-&8*$10-(&9&
3$2-!-&$B.-43-!-&0"8$2-L&$B%"!B3-!-&8*$10-;-&
in bastijami so številni gradovi tako šele v 15.
-3&RS(&8*$1:*#>&4$B-1-&.3";-13$&%".'-B"3$&'%"#sko
podobo. Tudi mestna in trška obzidja so
0%"2&*:4"#&.&'%"43#"!-&I*:2-13-=&3$2-=&8*$10$2&
4$B-1"&0$4$B$&0%"2-=&>*%4BL&/"%&#:&0$!:!B3$&
.".3"!$2"1$&3#-=$2$&0%:0$.3"23$8*&2&/%"#-3-(&
MB.-4"3-=&!:8*3-=&."83$2&-.&Re(&-3&R\(&8*$1:*#"&
2&3"80%$*#>&.&'%"4$2-&8-H:%&0$&2:;-3-&3-8$&I-%-1-(&
&*>%I/-=&20"4$2&0%-4%>+-1"&*>4-&!"3#I"&
*%I/"&"1-&2"I/"&3"8:1#"L&/-&8$&#-=&2&H:1$*-&"1-&4:1no
obdali z obzidji. Takšno utrjevanje je bilo
.3";-13$& .1"8*-& ."& 3"8:1#"& 3"& 3"#B$1#& -.0$8*"-
21#:3-=&!:#3-=&$B!$;#-=&2&B1-+-3-&@$#3:&/%"#-ne
in Beneške republike. Ob reki Kolpi so ob
@&)%8*:&"28&G*>"@E,*&7%*(=&]3%3&"1E$&]"1138&*2&I3cause
of engagements with the Republic of Venice. In
â'"2#31&"28&G*>"@E,*&7%*(-&F"E'13E&]3%3&;$B2838&";'3%&
the construction of walls around the settlements. In
â'"2#31-&':3&>%3E32'&8"C&F"E'13&F$6>13a&]"E&;$B2838&
in the late 16 th century and 17 th century with merging
of the houses that leaned on the village walls.
In concatenation of the fortifying of the west bor-
83%&"O"*2E'&G323'*"2E-&"&O%3"'&;$%'%3EE-&71B(3-&]"E&
founded at Bovec. Through a series of self-dependent
;$%'E-&':3&b$BE3&$;&b"IEIB%O&E3FB%38&"&I$%83%&]*':&
':3& `3>BI1*F& $;& G32*F3& $2& ':3& 38O3& $;& 7"%E'.& _183%&
castles were partly included but they also built new
;$%'E&"E&]311-&]:*F:&F$6>13'38&"&F:"*2&$;&;$%'E&7BI38-&
H$8>3A-&á%2*&7"1-&_E>-&N$F3%I-&G*,B6I3%O-&D$%32F"2&
"28& !$,$@& O%"8.& j*':& E6"113%& OB"%8& '$]3%E-& ]311&
8$FB632'38&*2&G"1@"E$%fE&6">&$;&)31"&,%"#*2"-&':3C&
E3FB%38&':3&36I"2,632'&$;&%*@3%&7$1>".&P%$6&$23&$;&
Tabor nad Cerovim na Dolenjskem z obnovljenimi lesenimi
$B%"!B3-!-&=$43-/-&3"&3$*%"3#-&8*%"3-&$B.-4#"b&!"/:*"(
“Tabor” above Cerovo in Dolenjska with renewed wooden defensive
walls on inside side of wall in. Model.
':3E3&'$]3%E-&':3&O%3"'-&;$%'*;*38&F$6>13a&$;&H$I%3(#3&
]"E&;$B2838.&P$%'*;*38&F*'*3E-&6"%,3'&'$]2E-&F"E'13E&
and border posts were accompanied with strategic
valley blockades on regional borders. The following
are documented: Turkish wall near Ruše at Maribor;
I1$F,"83&I3']332&7%"2#E,"&"28&â'"#3%E,"&"'&â>*'"1*A&
23"%& !$'2*,p& 5B%,*E:& 32'%32F:632'E& "'& 7$'1#3& *2&
0"%*2':*"p& "28& I1$F,*2O& ]"11& "'& n313+2"& 7">1"& *2&
Carinthia.
An important novelty in the development of forti-
;C*2O-&"E&"&%3EB1'&$;&5B%,*E:&*2FB%E*$2E-&]"E&':3&"2'*Z
Turkish “tabor”. This was a special defensive archi-
'3F'B%3-&'C>*F"1&$21C&;$%&':"'&'*63-&IB*1'&IC&>3"E"2'E&
to secure their lives and property. Walls and towers
83;32838&@*11"O3&$%&6"%,3'&'$]2&F:B%F:3E-&F:"%"F'3%istic
of that time. Up to the end of the 15 th century
*2&N1$@32*"-&"&23']$%,&$;&cXSh[SS&>3"E"2'&Ñ'"I$%Ez&
M I L I T A R Y H I S T O R Y ! 169

K:/4"3#-&'1"23-&2=$4&2&0%$*-*>%I/-&*"B$%&2&`:%/3-H-&3"&K$*%"3#skem
Former main entrance in anti-Turkish “tabor” in Cerknica in
Notranjska.
8*"%:#I-=&'%"4$2-=&>8*"3$2-1-&I*-%-&$B.-4"3:&-3&
!$;3$&>*%#:3:&3$2:&*%':&6$8*:1L&A$1#"3:L&@-3--
H$&-3&A$B%:+#:L&/-&8$&B-1-&28"#&2&$B4$B#>&*>%I/-=&
20"4$2&8*"13$&3"8:1#:3-&-3&8$&0$3>#"1-&."*$;--
I;:&*>4-&0%:B-2"18*2>&-.&I-%I:'"&."1:4#"(&K"&K$-
*%"3#8/:!&8$&$B&%:/-&C:/-&$B&8*"%:#I-=&'%"4$2-=&
f"B1"3-H"L&,-8*%-H"L&A%:!&-3&Q-1:3*"B$%&3"8*"1-&
3$2-L&!$;3$&>*%#:3-&$B.-4"3-&/$!01:/8-L&/-&8$&
#-=&>0$%"B1#"1-&*>4-&."&0%-B:+"1-I;:&$/$1-I/:'"&
prebivalstva. V Vipavski dolini so prav tako v
zvezi z gradovi nastali veliki utrjeni kompleksi
3"&@-0"28/:!&8*"%:!&'%"4>L&$/$1-&@-0"28/:'"&
80$43#:'"&'%"4>&-3&0%-&^%3-;"=(&@&& 8*"& >*%#:3"& '%"dova
nastala šele po izgradnji obzidja okrog
170 ! V O J A Š K A Z G O D O V I N A
]3%3&;$B2838-&*2&"11&,*28&$;&E:">3E-&;%$6&E*6>13&;$%'*-
;*38&B283%O%$B28&F"@3E-&'$&E*6>13&$%&F$6>13a&]"11E&
]*':& '$]3%E& "28& %*E*2O& I%*8O3E.& W2& ;"F'-& ':3& ECE'36&
was the only truly effective form of defence against
the frequent plundering and incursions of the Turkish
army. Together with bonfires on the most exposed
"28& @*E*I13& >$*2'E-& *'& F$2'%$1138& ]:$13& %3O*$2E& ;%$6&
H$6B%#3&'$&PB%1"2*#"&"28&;%$6&0%$"'*"&"28&WE'%"-&;"%&
'$]"%8E&2$%':&'$&7$%$J,"&"28&5*%$1E,".&W2&Ñ'"I$%Ez&
were often granaries where people kept their most
valuable possessions. 8 The main property of “tabors”
]3%3&:*O:&"28&E$63]:"'&':*2&]"11E-&]:*F:&]3%3&E*6*-
1"%1C&E:">38&"E&F*'C&"28&F"E'13&]"11E.&5:3&$B'3%-&B>per
section was equipped with crenels and internally
there were wooden interconnected corridors. The
most important partly preserved anti-Turkish “ta-
I$%Ez&*2&N1$@32*"&"%3&*2&03%,2*F"-&"I$@3&`3>2#3-&"I$@3&
03%$@$-&$2&â6"%2"&O$%"-&$2&?",1"23F&"'&b$%#B1-&*2&
b%"E'$@1#3-& $2& H'B#E,"& O$%"-& "28& *2& n"13F.& Ñ5"I$%Ez&
were often built in a hurry due to an overall shortage.
This kind of fort had only one basic purpose: to
>%$@*83& E";3& %3;BO3& ;$%& >3$>13.& Ñ5"I$%Ez-& "E& ]311& "E&
;$%'*;*38& F"E'13E& "28& 6$2"E'3%*3E-& 8*82f'& :"@3& $@3%all
military significance. Walled in complexes would
I3-&"'&I3E'-&$21C&F"6>E*'3E&;$%&':3&"%6C.&5:3&%">*81C&
constructed walls protected lives and the property of
people and with their appearance it turned away the
Turkish hordes that chose instead to ride on. These
walls would not have withstood any long-term siege.
/& E*6*1"%& F$2F3>'& $;& ;$%'*;C*2O-& '$& ':3& ]"11E&
"%$B28& Ñ'"I$%Ez& "28& F:B%F:3E-& ]3%3& ]"11E& "%$B28&
medieval unfortified tower-like castles that were the
residences of lower nobility. Perhaps the best-known
"2'*Z5B%,*E:&;$%'*;*38&F"E'13&*E&_'$A3F&2"&7%,*&]:*F:&
]"E&EB%%$B2838&]*':&]"11E-&F*%FB1"%&'$]3%E&"28&"2&
artificially dug new riverbed so that the castle was
surrounded with water on all sides. Anti-Turkish fortified
castles were as numerous as “tabors” around
churches but only a few remained. Most typical and
"'&13"E'&>"%'1C&>%3E3%@38&]3%3&â,%1#3@$-&`"831F"&"28&
5%3I2#3& *2& 4$132#E,"-& á%231$& "28& G$1A#*& >$'$,& *2&
K$%32#E,"-&N'B832$&"28&M"81*J3,&*2&M$'%"2#E,"&"28&
N3("2"&*2&7"%E'.&/'&;$%'*;*38&F:B%F:3E&"28&F"E'13E-&*'&*E&
also necessary to mention the cave refuges that were
known since pre-historical era and provided simple
protection in times of danger. There are partly pre-
E3%@38&F"@3&%3;BO3E&*2&K$8"J2*F"&"I$@3&?"I%3+2*F"&"'&
n*%$@2*F"-&F"E'13&â6"#8&23"%&H%38$E31#3&*2&K$%32#E,"&
"28&H$8'"I$%&"'&723(",.&
S" ],4)/8"@A:!L"7/)/8"],4)/89"U'),6e*81,4>"m)%D284n",'"N$2&/',%9",'f"Gradovi, utrdbe in
mestna obzidja, Vodnik po Spomenikih; ^%).'!).239-()!(6,162%)!$)$'

naselbine. V Štanjelu se je zdajšnje grajsko poslopje
razvilo šele konec 16. stoletja in v 17.
8*$1:*#>&.&.4%>+:2"3#:!&=-IL&/-&8$&#-=&0%-81$3-1-&
3"&2"I/$&$B.-4#:(&@&$/2-%>&>*%#:2"3#"&."=$43:&
!:#:& 0%:4& ,:3:;"3-& #:& 3"8*"1"& *>4-& !$'$;3"&
*%43#"2"& 61>+:& 0%-& ,$2H>(& 9& 2%8*$& 8"!$8*$#-
3-=& >*%4B& 8$& l"B8B>%+"3-& ."2"%$2"1-& !:#$& .&
Beneško republiko na Kraškem robu. Vanjo
8$&4:13$&2/1#>;-1-&*>4-&8*"%:#I:&'%"4$2:L&4:13$&
0"&8$&.'%"4-1-&3$2:&>*%4B:L&*"/$&4"&#:&3"8*"-
1"&2:%-'"&>*%4B&6>B:4L&A$40:;L&^%3-&6"1L&M80L&
D$H:%BL&@-/>!B:%'L&-
!:3*-%"&@"12"8$%#:2&.:!1#:2-4&,:1:&/%"#-3:L&0"&
8$&."2"%$2"1-&3"B%:+#:&6$10:(&X.&:3:'"&$4&*:=&
8*$10$2&8:&#:&%".2-1&!$'$;:3&>*%#:3-&/$!01:/8&
A$B%:+#:(&c*%#:3-!&!:8*$!L&*%'$!L&'%"4$2$!&
in obmejnim postojankam so dodajali strate-
I/:&4$1-38/:&."0$%:&3"&4:+:13-=&!:#"=(&O$/>-
!:3*-%"3-&8$&*>%I/-&.-4&B1-.>&C>I&0%-&)"%-B$%>L&
zapora med Kranjsko in Štajersko pri Špitali-
;>&B1-.>&)$*3-/"L&5>%I/:&I"3H:&0%-&6$*1#"=&3"&
6$%$I/:!&-3&."0$%3-&.-4&0%-&h:1:.3-&6"01-&3"&
Koroškem.
A$!:!B3"& 3$2$8*& 2& %".2$#>& >*%#:2"3#"L& /-&
8$& #$& 0%-3:81-& *>%I/-& 20"4-L& 8$& B-1-& 0%$*-*>%I/-&
*"B$%-(& 5$& #:& 0$8:B3"& $B%"!B3"& "%=-*:/*>%"L&
.3";-13"&8"!$&."&*-8*$&$B4$B#:L&/-&8$&#$&'%"4-1-&
/!:*#:&."&."2"%$2"3#:&82$#-=&+-21#:3#&-3&0%:!$-
+:3#"(& 9& $B.-4#:!& -3& 8*$10-& ."2"%$2"3:& 2"I/:&
"1-&*%I/:&H:%/2:&8$&0$!:!B3"&.3";-13$8*&*-8*:ga
obdobja. Do konca 15. stoletja je na Sloven-
8/:!&3"8*"1"&!%:+"&eYT&4$&\TT&/!:;/-=&*"B$-
%$2&28:=&!$'$;-=&$B1-/&$4&0%:0%$8*$&>*%#:3-=&
0$4.:!3-=& #"!& 4$& :3$8*"23-=& "1-& ."01:*:3-=&
$B.-4-#&8&8*$10-&-3&42-+3-!-&!$8*$2-(&D-8*:!&#:&
B-1&:4-3"&%:8&4:1>#$;"&$B1-/"&$B%"!B:&0%:4&28:&
0$'$8*:#I-!-& %$0"%8/-!-& 24$%-& *>%I/-=& $44:1kov
in je skupaj s kresovi na najbolj izpostavlje-
3-=&-3&2-43-=&*$;/"=&$B21"4$2"1&28$&0$/%"#-3$&
od Pomurja do Furlanije ter od Hrvaške in Istre
4"1:;&3"&8:2:%&4$&%$B"&6$%$I/:&-3&5-%$18/:(&@&
*"B$%-=&8$&0$'$8*$&8*"1:&*>4-&/"I;:L&2&/"*:%-=&
#:&0$4:+:18/$&0%:B-2"18*2$&=%"3-1$&82$#:&4%"'$cenosti.
8 &A$'1"2-*3"&>*%4B:3"&.3";-13$8*&*"B$rov
so bila visoka in razmeroma tanka obzid-
#"L&$B1-/$2"3"&0$4$B3$&/$*&!:8*3"&-3&'%"#8/"(&
K"&.>3"3#-&8*%"3-&8$&B-1"&0%:428:!&2&2%=3#:!&
4:1>&$0%:!1#:3"&8&8*%:13-!-&1-3"!-&"1-&H-3"!-L&
S" ],4)/8"@A:!L"7/)/8"],4)/89"782),)*8(1,")%D28,"'%"N$2&/'41/09"&f"Gradovi, utrdbe in
mestna obzidja, Vodnik po Spomenikih; ^%).'!).239-()!(6,162%)!$)$'13a&$;&6$2"E'3%C&n*A3.
The fortifying of monastery settlements was more
complex than fortifying village and market town
churches. A series of important monasteries - Gornji
O%"8-&n*A3-&eB%,1$J'3%-&)*E'%"-&H13'3%#3-&7$E'"2#3@*F"-&
N'*A2"-& N'B832*F3-& !"%32I3%O-& M$@*& ,1$J'3%& Z& ]3%3&
>%$'3F'38&]*':&3a'32E*@3&]"11&ECE'36E&]:*F:-&IC&':3*%&
3a'32E*@323EE& "28& E'%32O':-& $;'32& EB%>"EE38& F"E'13&
83;32F3E.& !$2"E'3%C& N'B832*F3-& ;$%& 3a"6>13-& ]"E&
protected by self-dependent monastery castle that
3@$1@38& ;%$6& "2& $183%& 3a>$E38& '$]3%.& _;'32& *2& 13EE&
fortified Turkish settlements were fortifield parish
F:B%F:3E-&]:*F:&*2&':3&QR th century gained the shape
of real castle buildings. Fortified parish churches
"%3&>%3E3%@38&*2&N'"%*&'%O&"'&N1$@32#&K%"83F-&D"J,$-&
GB+32*F"-&N1$@32E,3&7$2#*F3&"28&`"8$@1#*F".
At the end of the first third of the 16 th & F32'B%C-&
fortification architecture adjusted to new methods of
fighting with firearms. Numerous older or even newly
built castles were strengthened with powerful low
bastions. Typical modern fortifying of older castle
M I L I T A R Y H I S T O R Y ! 171

A%$*-*>%I/-&0$1/%$+3-&$B%"!B3-&8*$10&3:/4"3#:'"&$B.-4#"&
B:3:4-/*-38/:'"&8"!$8*"3"&2&i$%3#:!&i%"4>L&.'%"#:3&$/$1-&
leta 1500.
)B*1'&"%$B28&QXSS&/.4.-&"2'*Z5B%,*E:&E36*F*%FB1"%&83;32E*@3&'$]3%&
of the former wall in the Benedictine monastery in Gornji Grad.
3"&3$*%"3#-&8*%"3-&8$&B-1-&1:8:3-&0$2:.$2"13-&=$-
43-/-(&K"#0$!:!B3:#I-&28"#&4:13$&I:&$=%"3#:3-&
0%$*-*>%I/-&*"B$%-&2&D1$2:3-#-&8$&2&`:%/3-H-L&3"4&
C:03#"!-L& 3"4& `:%$2-!L& 3"& Q!"%3-& '$%-L& 3"&
9"/1"3H>& 0%-& l$%#>1>L& 2& l%"8*$21#"=L& 3"& A*>#-
8/-&'$%-&-3&2&h"1H>(&5"B$%:&8$&0$'$8*$&'%"4-1-&
2&3"'1-H-L&$B&801$I3:!&0$!"3#/"3#>(&M83$23-&
namen takšne utrdbe je bil le en: ponuditi do-
2$1#&2"%3$&0%-B:+"1-I;:&."&$/$1-I/:&0%:B-2"1H:(&
Tabori prav tako kot protiturško utrjeni grado-
2-L&42$%-&-3&8"!$8*"3-&3-8$&-!:1-&0$!:!B3:#šega
splošnega vojaškega pomena. Obzidani
/$!01:/8-& B-& B-1-& 2& 3"#B$1#I:!& 0%-!:%>& 1"=/$&
*"B$%-I;"& 2$#"I/-=& 0$8"4/(& K"& =-*%$& .'%"#:3"&
obzidja so varovala okoliške prebivalce in nji-
=$2$&0%:!$+:3#:L&8&82$#$&0$#"23$8*#$&0"&8$&$4-
2%3-1"&*>%I/:&=$%4:L&/-&8:&#-!&#:&!>4-1$&3"0%:#(&
C".>!1#-2$&#:L&4"&*"/I3"&$B.-4#"&3-8$&2.4%+"1"&
4$1'$*%"#3:'"&-3&I*:2-1;3:'"&$B1:'"3#"(&
D$%$4:3&/$3H:0*&>*%#:2"3#"&/$*&0%-&*"B$%3-=&
$B.-4#-=&$/%$'&H:%/2"&8$&>0$%"B-1-&."&$B.-4#"&
$/%$'&8%:43#:2:I/-=&3:>*%#:3-=&8*$10"8*-=&42$-
%$2L&/-&8$&B-1-&0%:B-2"1-I;"&3"#3-+#:'"&01:!8*2"(&
)$%4"& 3"#.3";-13:#I-& 0%$*-*>%I/$& >*%#:3-& 42$%&
#:&M*$;:H&3"&6%/-L&/-&8$&'"&$B4"1-&.&$B.-4#:!&-3&
$/%$'1-!-&8*$10-L&H:1$*$&0"&."2"%$2"1-&.&>!:-
*3$&-./$0"3$&3$2$&%:;3$&8*%>'$L&*"/$&4"&#:&B-1&
42$%&.&28:=&8*%"3-&$B4"3&.&2$4$(&A%$*-*>%I/$&
>*%#:3-& 42$%-& 8$& B-1-& 8/$%"#& *"/$& I*:2-1;3-& /$*&
*"B$%-& $/%$'& H:%/2"L& 2:34"%& 8$& 8:& $=%"3-1-& 1:&
%:4/-(& K"#.3";-13:#I-& 28"#& 4:13$& I:& $=%"3#:3-&
8$&B-1-&Q/%1#:2$L&C"4:1H"&-3&5%:B3#:&3"&O$1:3#-
8/:!L& ^%3:1$& -3& @$1;#-& 0$*$/& 3"& i$%:3#8/:!L&
D*>4:3$&-3&K"41-I:/&3"&K$*%"3#8/:!&*:%&D:+"-
3"&3"&6%"8>(&MB&0%$*-*>%I/$&>*%#:3-=&H:%/2"=&
-3&42$%-=&#:&*%:B"&$!:3-*-&I:&#"!8/"&0%-B:+"-
1-I;"L& .3"3"& I:& -.& 0%".'$4$2-38/:'"& $B4$B#"L&
ki so najbolj preprosto zagotavljala varnost ob
!$%:B-*3-=&3:2"%3$8*-=(&@8"#&4:13$&8$&8:&$=%"-
3-1-&#"!8/$&."2:*-I;:&2&i$4"I3-H-&3"4&9"B%:-
.3-H$&0%-&h-%$23-H-L&Q!"#4$2&'%"4&B1-.>&A%:4$-
8:1#&3"&i$%:3#8/:!&-3&A$4*"B$%&0%-&63:+"/>L&
172 ! V O J A Š K A Z G O D O V I N A
"%F:*'3F'B%3&$;&':"'&3%"&*E&E332&"'&5B%#",-&nB(36I3%,-&
D36I3%O& "'& 4$I%2*-& G3132#3-& `*:36I3%,-& G*>$1(3-&
K%"8& $2& K$%*A,36-& 06B%3,& "28& M3O$@".& !*O:'C&
23]&I"E'*$2E&E'%32O':3238&':3&F*'C&]"11E&$;&!"%*I$%-&
H'B#-&D#BI1#"2"-&7%"2#-&M$@$&63E'$&"28&7$A3@#3.&5:*E&
marked a time of decline of medieval fortification. In
E>*'3&$;&':*E-&B>&B2'*1&':3&6*8813&$;&':3&QR th &F32'B%C-&
there were still some fortifications of castle buildings.
5C>*F"1&3a"6>13E&"%3&E332&"'&':3&F"E'13E&$;&H$I%3(#3&
"28& áBJ>3%,.& W2& ':3& QR th and 17 th & F32'B%*3E-& ':3%3&
]3%3&E$63&*6>$%'"2'-&6$E'1C&W'"1*"2-&6*1*'"%C&32O*neers
working in Slovenia: Domenico and Gianmaria
8311Ö/11*$-& N"1BE'*$& H3%B++*-& !"%'*2& N'*3%-& K*$@"22*&
)"''*E'"&H*3%$2*-&]:$&]3%3&>%3>"%*2O&>1"2E&'$&6$8-
3%2*E3& ':3& F*'C& "28& F"E'13& I$%83%& ;$%'E& $;& !"%*I$%-&
H'B#-&`"8O$2"-&7$E'"2#3@*F"&"28&D#BI1#"2"-&IB'&;$%&
':3&6$E'&>"%'-&':3E3&>1"2E&8*8&2$'&F$63&'$&%3"1*E"tion.
Their work helped to establish contemporary
`32"*EE"2F3& "%F:*'3F'B%3-& B283%& W'"1*"2& *2;1B32F3E.&
From the borders of Slovenia were founded four new
Renaissance fortifying concepts: the outer walls of
93";-13"&0$.3$8%:43#:2:I/"&/1#>;"8*"&8*%:13"&1-3"&2&%".2"1-3-&
gradu Jablanica pri Ilirski Bistrici z notranje strani.
Typically late medieval key-like crenel in ruined castle Jablanica
at Ilirska Bistrica from the inner side.

:3"/$&$B1-/$&0"&#:&-!:1$&*>4-&I:&4$B%$&$=%"-
3#:3$&'%"#8/$&#"!8/$&."*$;-I;:&2&f"!-&3"&K$tranjskem.
c*%#:2"3#:& 8"!$8*"38/-=& 3"8:1B-3& #:& B-1$&
/$!01:/83:#I:& $4& >*%#:2"3#"& 2"I/-=& -3& *%I/-=&
H:%/2"(&@%8*$&3"#0$!:!B3:#I-=&8"!$8*"3$2&_&
i$%3#-&i%"4L&h-;:L&f>%/1$I*:%L&,-8*%"L&A1:*:%#:L&
6$8*"3#:2-H"L& D*-;3"L& D*>4:3-H:L& )"%:3B:%'L&
K$2-&/1$I*:%&_&8$&."2"%$2"1-&.&$B8:+3-!-&$B.--
43-!-&8-8*:!-L&/-&8$&0$&$B8:'>&-3&>*%#:3$8*-&0$gosto
celo prekašali grajske obrambne sestavine.
Studeniški samostan so tako zavarovali
/"%& 8& 8"!$8*$#3-!& 8"!$8*"38/-!& '%"4$!L& /-&
se je razvil iz starejšega izpostavljenega stolpa.
@& 81"BI:& >*%#:3-=& *%I/-=& 3"8:1B-3"=& 8$& 0$-
'$8*$& 0$8:B:#& >*%#:2"1-& +>03-I;"L& /-& 8$& 2& RS(&
8*$1:*#>& 4$B-1"& 0$4$B$& 0%"2-=& '%"#8/-=& 8*"2B(&
K"#.3";-13:#I"&>*%#:3"&+>03-I;"&8$&8:&$=%"3-1"&
2&D*"%:!&*%'>&0%-&D1$2:3#&i%"4H>L&&3";-3>&B$-
#:2"3#"& .& $'3#:3-!& $%$+#:!(& Q*:2-13:& 8*"%:#I:&
ali celo na novo pozidane gradove so okrepili
.& !$;3-!-& 3-./-!-& B"8*-#"!-(& K"#.3";-13:#I:&
!$4:%3$& >*%#:3:& 8*"%:#I:& '%"#8/:& "%=-*:/*>%:&
*-8*:'"&$B4$B#"&8$&5>%#"/L&h>+:!B:%/L&#L& B1#"3"L& 6%"3#L& K$2$& !:8*$&
-3&6$;:2#:(&5$&#:&B-1$&$B4$B#:&."*$3"&8%:43#:veškega
utrjevanja. Kljub temu pa so še vse do
sredine 16. stoletja nekatere grajske stavbe utr-
#:2"1-&2&8%:43#:2:I/-&!"3-%-(&K"#.3";-13:#I"&*"-
/I3"&0%-!:%"&8*"&4$1:3#8/"&'%"4$2"&A$B%:+#:&-3&
^>I0:%/(&@&RS(&-3&Rk(&8*$1:*#>&#:&3"&D1$2:38/:!&
4:1$2"1$&3:/"#&0$!:!B3-=L&0$&2:;-3-&-*"1-#"3-
8/-=&2$#"I/-=&-3+:3-%#:2J&O$!:3-H$&-3&i-"3!"-
%-"&4:11ãE11-$L&D"1>8*-$&A:%>..-L&)"%*-3&D*-:%L&i--
$2"33-&,"**-8*"&A-:%$3-L&/-&8$&0%-0%"21#"1-&3";%*:&
."& 0$8$4$B-*:2& !:8*3-=& -3& '%"#8/-=& $B!:#3-=&
>*%4B& )"%-B$%"L& A*>#"L& C"4'$3:L& 6$8*"3#:2-H:&
-3&B1#"3:L&2:34"%&2:;-3:&3-8$&>80:1-&>%:83-;--
*-(&K#-=$2$&4:1$&#:&0%-0$!$'1$&.1"8*-&/&4$/$3;3-&
>2:1#"2-*2-&8$4$B3:&%:3:8"3;3:&"%=-*:/*>%:&0$4&
-*"1-#"38/-!-& 201-2-(& h:& .>3"#& !:#"& 4"3"I3#:&
Slovenije so nastali štirje velikopotezno izpelja-
3-&3$2-&%:3:8"3;"3-&>*%4B:3-&/$3H:0*-J&.>3"3#:&
$B.-4#:& '%"4>& 2& i$%-H-L& $B.-4#:& `:1$2H"L& 3$2$&
mestno obzidje Radgone in trdnjava Karlovac.
F"E'13&*2&K$%*F"p&':3&]"11E&$;&71"O32;B%'&9031$@3Fp=&
':3&23]&F*'C&]"11E&$;&`"8O$2"p&"28&;$%'&7"%1$@"F.
The establishment of Vojna krajina and the build-
*2O& $;& ':3& ;$%'& "'& 7"%1$@"F& 9QXmV& /.4.=& %3E'%"*238&
Turkish incursions. Building of forts at the end of
the 16 th century had almost completely ended. In the
17 th &F32'B%C-&;$%'E&I3F"63&B223F3EE"%C&IB%832E&':"'&
were hard to maintain. They began to fall apart and
from the 18 th century onwards they were massively
removed and the building material used for other
needs.
@-8$/$8%:43#:2:I/-&'%"4&C-B3-H"&3"&O$1:3#8/:!L&>*%#:3&2&0$-
.3$8%:43#:2:I/-&*%"4-H-#-&$/$1-&1:*"&RYekb&"/8$3$!:*%-;3"&%-8B"(
`*I2*F"&*2&4$132#E,"-&;$%'*;*38&*2&1"'3&638*3@"1&'%"8*'*$2&"%$B28&
1537 A.D. Axonometric drawing.
M I L I T A R Y H I S T O R Y ! 173

Vzpostavitev vojne krajine in pozidava me-
8*3:&*%43#"2:&6"%1$2"H&1:*"&RYkW&#:&>!-%-1"&*>%ške
vpade. Gradnja utrdb je do konca 16. stole-
*#"&0$28:!&."!%1"(&h:&2&Rk(&8*$1:*#>&8$&>*%4B:&
0$8*"1:& 3:0$*%:B3:L& *:+/$& 8$& #-=& 2.4%+:2"1-(&
9";:1:&8$&0%$0"4"*-L&.1"8*-&$4&RZ(&8*$1:*#"&3"-
0%:#&0"&8$&#-=&.";:1-&!3$+-;3$&$48*%"3#:2"*-&-3&
gradivo uporabljati za druge namene.
/$,0"5"#
K"&D1$2:38/:!&#:&2:1-/"&2:;-3"&8%:43#:2:-
I/-=&>*%4B&3"8*"1"&2&RV(&-3&Re(&8*$1:*#>(&5$&8$&
B-1-&'%"4$2-L&>*%#:3-&8"!$8*"3-&-3&!:8*"L&/-&8$&
#-=&2&R\(&-3&RY(&8*$1:*#>&4$4"*3$&>*%#:2"1-(&@&."dnji
tretjini 15. stoletja so vse pogostejši turški
20"4-L&0$&1:*>&RYTT&0"&*>4-&2$#3:&l"B8B>%+"-
3$2&.&,:3:I/$&%:0>B1-/$L&80%$+-1-&$B8:+3$&4:-
#"23$8*&>*%#:2"3#"L&/-&#:&."#:1"&*"/$&!:8*"L&*%':&
-3&'%"4$2:&/$*&*>4-&8"!$8*"3:L&H:%/2:&-3&0$membnejše
vasi. V sklopu protiturškega utrje-
2"3#"&8$&*"/$&%:/$;&28-&2-8$/$8%:43#:2:I/-&'%"-
4$2-&-.&RV(&-3&Re(&8*$1:*#"&4$B-1-&3$2"&.>3"3#"&
$B.-4#"L&>*%#:2"1-&0"&8$&*>4-&4$&*:4"#&3:>*%#:3:&
42$%:&-3&8"!$8*"3:&.>3"#&!:8*3-=&3"8:1B-3(&
Turški vpadi so bili plenilni in ne zavojeval-
3-L&."*$&80%2"&I:&3-8$&'%"4-1-&$B8:+3-=&-3&!$;-
3-=&2$#"I/-=&>*%4B(&9&>*%#:2"3#:!&8$&0$8/>I"1-&
zavarovati predvsem najpomembnejše dobri-
3:J& +-21#:3#:& -3& -!:*#:(& A%$*-*>%I/:& >*%4B:& 8&
/$3H"&RY(&-3&0%2-=&4:8:*1:*-#&RS(&8*$1:*#"&8$&B-1:&
"%=-*:/*>%3$&I:&0$28:!&8%:43#:2:I/:(&i%"#8/"&
#:4%"L& 8*$10"8*:& 42$%:& -3& 8"!$8*"3:& 8$& $B4"-
#"1-&8&I-%$/-!-&$B.-43-!-&0$*:."!-L&.'%"#:3-!-&
2&3"'1-H-L&/-&8$&8:&$B-;"#3$&0$28:!&0$4%:#"1:&
naravni izoblikovanosti terena. Utrjenim me-
8*$!&-3&'%"4$2$!&8$&8:&2&$B4$B#>&*>%I/-=&20"-
4$2&0%-4%>+-1"&!"3#I"&*%I/"&"1-&2"I/"&3"8:1#"L&
/-& 8$& #-=& 2& H:1$*-& "1-& 4:13$& $B4"#"1-& .& $B.-4#-(&
5"/I3$&>*%#:2"3#:&#:&B-1$&.3";-13$&.1"8*-&."&3"-
8:1#"&3"&3"#B$1#&-.0$8*"21#:3-=&!:#3-=&$B!$;#-=&
2& B1-+-3-& 2$#3:& /%"#-3:& -3& B:3:I/:& %:0>B1-/:(&
A$!:!B3"&3$2$8*&2&%".2$#>&>*%#:2"3#"L&/-&8$&
#$&0%-3:81-&*>%I/-&20"4-L&8$&B-1-&*>4-&0%$*-*>%I/-&
*"B$%-(& 5$& #:& 0$8:B3"L& 8"!$& ."& *-8*$& $B4$B#:&
.3";-13"&$B%"!B3"&"%=-*:/*>%"L&/-&8$&#$&'%"4-1-&
/!:*#:&."&."2"%$2"3#:&82$#-=&+-21#:3#&-3&0%:!$-
+:3#"(& 9& $B.-4#:!& -3& 8*$10-& ."2"%$2"3:& 2"I/:&
"1-&*%I/:&H:%/2:&8$&0$8*"1:&0$!:!B3"&.3";-1nost
tistega obdobja.
174 ! V O J A Š K A Z G O D O V I N A
Summary
In Slovenia the majority of Medieval fortifications
]3%3&IB*1'&*2&':3&QU th and 13 th centuries. These were
F"E'13E-&"E&]311&"E&;$%'*;*38&6$2"E'3%*3E&"28&'$]2E-&
further fortified in the 14 th and 15 th centuries. In the
last third of the 15 th century the increasing number
of Turkish invasions and also wars between the
b$BE3&$;&b"IEIB%O&"28&':3&G323'*"2&`3>BI1*F-&";'3%&
':3&C3"%&QXSS-&F"BE38&3a'32E*@3&;$%'*;*F"'*$2&"F'*@*-
'*3E&]:*F:&*2F1B838&F*'*3E&"28&'$]2E-&"E&]311&"E&6$2-
"E'3%*3E-& F:B%F:3E& "28& *6>$%'"2'& @*11"O3E.& j*':*2&
anti-Turkish fortification activities almost all High
!38*3@"1& 0"E'13E& ;%$6& ':3& QU th and 13 th centuries
]3%3& %3IB*1'& ]*':& 23]& 3a'3%2"1& ]"11E-& ]:*13& B2;$%tified
courts and monasteries outside towns underwent
a process of fortification.
Since the purpose of Turkish invasions was plun-
83%*2O-& "28& 2$'& F$2dB3%*2O-& "'& ':3& @3%C& I3O*22*2O&
the building of extensive and strong military fortifications
was not common. Fortification was designed
to protect the most important goods: life and possessions.
Anti-Turkish fortifications from the end of the
15 th century and the first decades of the 16 th century
carried all characteristics of Medieval architecture:
F"E'13& F$%3E-& '$]3%38& F"E'13E& "28& 6$2"E'3%*3E& ]3%3&
surrounded by rapidly built reinforced walls which
usually were completely in line with the natural
characteristics of the terrain. In the period of Turkish
invasions fortified towns and castles were joined by
market towns or villages which were partially or
completely surrounded by walls. Such fortification
was typical mainly of the most exposed border areas
near The Military Frontier and the Venetian
Republic. An important innovation in fortification
83@31$>632'-&I%$BO:'&IC&5B%,*E:&*2@"E*$2E-&]"E&"2-
'*Z5B%,*E:&F"6>E.&5:*E&*E&E>3F*"1&83;32E3&"%F:*'3F'B%3-&
typical of only that period. It was built by farmers
who wanted to protect their lives and possessions.
G*11"O3&$%&'$]2&F:B%F:3E-&;$%'*;*38&]*':&]"11E&$%&'$]-
3%E-&I3F"63&"2&*6>$%'"2'&;3"'B%3&$;&':"'&'*63.&

;",)+7&J$+73#7&08$2$,)-7'A\`626'I56FC6N'=4N>1'A>'24'5'MIK'K1C@6N;9'1'I1ON1M>6'>6'OM=4N>4@'
naslovu www.vojaskimuzej.si.
"AOF6>1'C45A21'=6`F1'>6C13AN4'MCA'\6=1aAE1'M1Y=2AN4'>6'R4K4>O1C'ID1D1D9'#'24'5F=2;34>'5'E4>1D'_1YA=26>24'M1O6@4\>4'YN45A=F4'O4'\6C6-
3;>6'M1'54=265>4@'E4>AF;'M1YN4'S=154>A24D'
! R ; Y ` U = ! U K R
+6C136@'C45A21',126YF6'\H1I15A>6'I1'MC4F=AE6B'
Ime in priimek: ...............................................................................................................................
Ime pravne osebe (opcija): ................................................................................................................
R653>6'YN45A=F6'dO6@1'\6'MC65>4'1O4'MCAE4'dh9Z'ieD
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Y ;Gc ; & < Y ; ]
Yes, I want to take out a subscription for Military History until cancellation: .............................................
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M I L I T A R Y H I S T O R Y ! 175

;",)+7&J$+73#7&08$2$,)-7'A\`626'I56FC6N'=4N>1'A>'24'5'MIK'K1C@6N;9'1'I1ON1M>6'>6'OM=4N>4@'
naslovu www.vojaskimuzej.si.
"AOF6>1'C45A21'=6`F1'>6C13AN4'MCA'\6=1aAE1'M1Y=2AN4'>6'R4K4>O1C'ID1D1D9'#'24'5F=2;34>'5'E4>1D'_1YA=26>24'M1O6@4\>4'YN45A=F4'O4'\6C6-
3;>6'M1'54=265>4@'E4>AF;'M1YN4'S=154>A24D'
! R ; Y ` U = ! U K R
+6C136@'C45A21',126YF6'\H1I15A>6'I1'MC4F=AE6B'
Ime in priimek: ...............................................................................................................................
Ime pravne osebe (opcija): ................................................................................................................
R653>6'YN45A=F6'dO6@1'\6'MC65>4'1O4'MCAE4'dh9Z'ieD
Postage will be charged according to Post of Slovenia rates.
Y ;Gc ; & < Y ; ]
Yes, I want to take out a subscription for Military History until cancellation: .............................................
Name, surname: ..............................................................................................................................
Name of the legal entity (optional): .....................................................................................................
VAT number (legal entities only): ........................................................................................................
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176 ! V O J A Š K A Z G O D O V I N A