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Teacher: Now we are go<strong>in</strong>g to play Say the Word. Remember, Maxwell (puppet) can say words only <strong>in</strong> a funny way. Whenever he says a word, it is stretched. You have to tell me what word he said the fast way. Listen. /mmmaaat/. What word? (cue students) Students: mat When segment<strong>in</strong>g, the teacher said the whole word <strong>and</strong> the child segmented the word, say<strong>in</strong>g each phoneme one at a time. The script for segment<strong>in</strong>g was as follows: Teacher: Now we are go<strong>in</strong>g to play Stretch the Word. Remember, I will say a word, <strong>and</strong> you will tell me the sounds you hear <strong>in</strong> the word. Sit. (pause) Stretch sit. Students: /sss/ /iii/ /t/ Focus<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>struction on these two critical skills <strong>and</strong> keep<strong>in</strong>g teacher language consistent was successful with the students <strong>in</strong> our study, although they required extensive practice. Stretch <strong>and</strong> Connect A second technique we found to be successful <strong>in</strong> teach<strong>in</strong>g phonemic awareness was stretch<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> connect<strong>in</strong>g phonemes dur<strong>in</strong>g the activities. We found our students much more readily blended words when we stretched cont<strong>in</strong>uous sounds (such as /fff/ /mmm/ /sss/) for 1–2 seconds <strong>and</strong> connected cont<strong>in</strong>uous sounds to the sound follow<strong>in</strong>g the cont<strong>in</strong>uous sound. For example, it was easier for students to blend /s/ /a/ /t/ <strong>in</strong>to sat when the teacher stretched the cont<strong>in</strong>uous sounds <strong>and</strong> did not stop between sounds (i.e. /sssaaat/). It was important not to pause after cont<strong>in</strong>uous sounds. We also used stretch<strong>in</strong>g sounds as a method for provid<strong>in</strong>g scaffold<strong>in</strong>g. For example, if a student was unable to say the first sound <strong>in</strong> sun, the teacher asked aga<strong>in</strong>, “What is the first sound <strong>in</strong> /sssun/?” stretch<strong>in</strong>g the /sss/ for emphasis. A word of caution worth not<strong>in</strong>g is that it is important to carefully pronounce sounds <strong>in</strong> isolation just as they are pronounced <strong>in</strong> words. Speech therapists, read<strong>in</strong>g coaches, or other read<strong>in</strong>g specialists are excellent resources for assistance. For example, students will f<strong>in</strong>d it difficult to blend /suh/ /a/ /tuh/ <strong>in</strong>to sat. In other words, it is important not to distort sounds by add<strong>in</strong>g /uh/ to the end of the consonant as many people do without realiz<strong>in</strong>g it. Careful Sequenc<strong>in</strong>g A third technique was carefully <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g the difficulty of the blend<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> segment<strong>in</strong>g tasks. Initially, students blended <strong>and</strong> segmented words at the onset-rime level. At this level, students segmented by identify<strong>in</strong>g the first sound <strong>in</strong> a spoken word (teacher: What’s the first sound <strong>in</strong> sun? student: /sss/). When blend<strong>in</strong>g, the teacher provides the onset <strong>and</strong> rime before the child says the word (teacher: /sss/ /un/, What word? student: sun). Gradually, students blended <strong>and</strong> segmented one phoneme at a time (Say the Word <strong>and</strong> Stretch <strong>and</strong> Blend, as above). A carefully designed curriculum should also gradually <strong>in</strong>crease the phonological difficulty of the words be<strong>in</strong>g blended <strong>and</strong> segmented. For example, words with cont<strong>in</strong>uous sounds <strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>itial position (e.g., sat, man) are easier to blend <strong>and</strong> segment than words beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g with stop sounds (e.g., tag, bat). Mak<strong>in</strong>g Phonemic Awareness Activities Mean<strong>in</strong>gful 360 / <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>-September 2009 PA was l<strong>in</strong>ked to oral language by l<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g mean<strong>in</strong>g to the words practiced dur<strong>in</strong>g the activities. We did this <strong>in</strong> several ways. Early on, we used a set of picture cards that were carefully developed to represent words that gradually <strong>in</strong>creased <strong>in</strong> phonological difficulty, but were also clearly recognizable from the picture. For example, the teacher asked, “Which word beg<strong>in</strong>s with /sssun/?” <strong>and</strong> the students responded by po<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g to the picture of the sun. For some students we supplemented the <strong>in</strong>tervention with poster scenes <strong>and</strong> practiced blend<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> segment<strong>in</strong>g words related to the scene. As needed, teachers referred to the scene to support the mean<strong>in</strong>g of the words be<strong>in</strong>g practiced (i.e., after blend<strong>in</strong>g run, the teacher would po<strong>in</strong>t to the boy runn<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> say a sentence, such as “The boy likes to run <strong>in</strong> the park.”). As students progressed, words were practiced <strong>in</strong> the PA activities prior to be<strong>in</strong>g read <strong>in</strong> connected text.
Jacob, Carl, <strong>and</strong> Rachel Develop Phonemic Awareness Jacob, Carl, <strong>and</strong> Rachel each responded well to PA <strong>in</strong>struction, though their progress was very slow. Jacob began the study with some PA skills, scor<strong>in</strong>g approximately 25 segments per m<strong>in</strong>ute on the phoneme segmentation fluency (PSF) measure of Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills (DIBELS; Good & Kam<strong>in</strong>ski, 2002), while Carl <strong>and</strong> Rachel began the study scor<strong>in</strong>g 0 on this measure. Even though Jacob began the study with some PA, he struggled to <strong>in</strong>crease his skills <strong>in</strong> this area because of severe deficits <strong>in</strong> short-term memory. However, with<strong>in</strong> about 5 months he reached the benchmark <strong>and</strong> with<strong>in</strong> approximately 10 months, his scores never dipped below benchmark aga<strong>in</strong>, <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g he had clearly mastered the skill. Carl <strong>and</strong> Rachel responded more slowly to <strong>in</strong>struction <strong>in</strong> PA, requir<strong>in</strong>g extensive practice <strong>and</strong> scaffold<strong>in</strong>g at the earliest levels of PA. With Carl <strong>and</strong> Rachel, we used picture support <strong>and</strong> extensive practice <strong>and</strong> scaffold<strong>in</strong>g at the onset-rime level of PA. Carl began to show progress after approximately 5 months of <strong>in</strong>struction <strong>and</strong> now performs very near the benchmark of 35. Rachel began to show progress on PSF after approximately one year of the <strong>in</strong>tervention <strong>and</strong> reached mastery a few months later. Techniques for Teach<strong>in</strong>g Phonics <strong>and</strong> Word Recognition Focus<strong>in</strong>g on Key Skills Like PA <strong>in</strong>struction, phonics <strong>and</strong> word recognition activities focused on several key skills that were <strong>in</strong>tegrated over time <strong>and</strong> gradually <strong>in</strong>creased <strong>in</strong> difficulty. The first skill was basic letter-sound correspondence which began with students identify<strong>in</strong>g the most common sound of <strong>in</strong>dividual letters <strong>and</strong> gradually students learned the sounds for various letter patterns. Second, students were taught to read words sound by sound. These words were made up of the letters <strong>and</strong> patterns that had been taught, with students <strong>in</strong>itially read<strong>in</strong>g words <strong>in</strong> which each letter represented its most common sound (ex. ran, last, milk, sun, etc.) <strong>and</strong> gradually <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> difficulty as students learned long vowel patterns (ex. like, ra<strong>in</strong>, light) <strong>and</strong> variant vowel patterns (ex. sound, claw, clown). F<strong>in</strong>ally, students learned high frequency words by sight if the words were irregularly spelled (ex. was, have) or if the sounds <strong>in</strong> the word had not been taught yet (ex. the word on is taught before the sound for short o is taught). Teach<strong>in</strong>g Letter-Sound Correspondence Although teach<strong>in</strong>g letter-sound correspondence is fairly straightforward, we do wish to highlight a few teach<strong>in</strong>g techniques that are important. As with most early read<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>terventions, we used mean<strong>in</strong>gful mnemonic clues when <strong>in</strong>troduc<strong>in</strong>g new letter sounds to l<strong>in</strong>k the abstract sound to someth<strong>in</strong>g concrete (ex. nose associated with n). We also provided extensive, cumulative review through a quick activity dur<strong>in</strong>g which students simply pronounced the sound for the letter on the chart when the teacher touched under the letter. To facilitate memory <strong>and</strong> the transfer of lettersound correspondence to the sound<strong>in</strong>g out strategy, teachers held a f<strong>in</strong>ger under the letter for two seconds when the letter was a cont<strong>in</strong>uous sound (ex. /mmm/) <strong>and</strong> tapped under the letter if it was a stop sound (ex. /t/). In this way, students became accustomed to stretch<strong>in</strong>g sounds when they saw letters that represented cont<strong>in</strong>uous sounds <strong>and</strong> more easily stretched those sounds dur<strong>in</strong>g sound<strong>in</strong>g out activities. Our curriculum also sequenced letter-sound <strong>in</strong>troduction carefully, <strong>in</strong>troduc<strong>in</strong>g the most common sounds early, <strong>in</strong>troduc<strong>in</strong>g easier sounds prior to more difficult sounds, <strong>and</strong> separat<strong>in</strong>g confus<strong>in</strong>g letters <strong>and</strong> sounds. Jacob, Carl, <strong>and</strong> Rachel Develop Letter-Sound Correspondence At the beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g of the study, Jacob, Carl, <strong>and</strong> Rachel knew very few, if any, letter sounds. We measured their progress on this skill us<strong>in</strong>g DIBELS Nonsense Word Fluency (NWF) <strong>and</strong> all three consistently scored 0 on this measure early <strong>in</strong> our study. Jacob’s scores began to improve somewhat after only one month of <strong>in</strong>struction, but he did not reach the benchmark of 50 letter sounds per m<strong>in</strong>ute until he had participated <strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>tervention for approximately two <strong>and</strong> a half years. Carl strug- Read<strong>in</strong>g Techniques / 361
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Education
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Education
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Education
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Best Practices in
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TABLE 1 Dolly Gray Children’s Lit
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