Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities - Division on ...

grade level goals with scores higher than 90
words per m<strong>in</strong>ute. Recently, she scored 142
words per m<strong>in</strong>ute on an end<strong>in</strong>g third-grade
level passage, well above the third-grade
benchmark of 110 words per m<strong>in</strong>ute. Currently,
she is be<strong>in</strong>g tested on fourth-grade
level passages, with recent scores of 86 <strong>and</strong> 93.
Techniques for Teach<strong>in</strong>g Read<strong>in</strong>g
Comprehension
Early Comprehension Development
As soon as students read connected text, simple
strategies are taught to facilitate comprehension
of sentences <strong>and</strong> then passages; however,
until basic word recognition skills are
mastered, comprehension is primarily taught
through storybooks read aloud. We have already
discussed how we use these storybooks
to develop oral language <strong>and</strong> vocabulary, but
we also use these read alouds to build background
knowledge essential for comprehension.
The storybooks were selected accord<strong>in</strong>g
to themes (e.g., animal homes, sea animals,
gett<strong>in</strong>g along with others, etc.) <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>clude
both narrative <strong>and</strong> expository text. Comprehension
strategies taught early <strong>in</strong> the curriculum
are applied through the books read orally
to the students <strong>and</strong> the decodable texts read
by the students. Early strategies <strong>in</strong>clude basic
story grammar, sequenc<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>and</strong> the use of
simple graphic organizers.
Later Comprehension Development
As word recognition skill <strong>in</strong>creases, the focus
of comprehension is on text students read
themselves. Like the read alouds used early <strong>in</strong>
the curriculum, text <strong>in</strong> the later portion of the
curriculum is grouped by themes to build
background knowledge. Novels <strong>and</strong> expository
text provide students with general knowledge
related to content areas, such as social
studies. Through these themes students build
knowledge <strong>and</strong> apply comprehension strategies.
Strategies taught early <strong>in</strong> the curriculum
cont<strong>in</strong>ue <strong>and</strong> new strategies are added. These
<strong>in</strong>clude mak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> check<strong>in</strong>g predictions, sequenc<strong>in</strong>g,
mak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>ferences, story grammar
for narrative text, content webb<strong>in</strong>g for <strong>in</strong>formational
text, <strong>and</strong> writ<strong>in</strong>g summaries. In one
lesson on <strong>in</strong>ferenc<strong>in</strong>g, students review what
they have learned about mounta<strong>in</strong>s <strong>in</strong> a previous
lesson <strong>and</strong> then read text about animals
to <strong>in</strong>fer where different animals live. For example,
the text about mounta<strong>in</strong> goats <strong>in</strong>cludes
clues that help students figure out
that mounta<strong>in</strong> goats live on the rocky slopes
of mounta<strong>in</strong>s (i.e., mounta<strong>in</strong> goats use their
hooves to climb rocks <strong>and</strong> steep slopes).
Jacob, Carl, <strong>and</strong> Rachel Develop Comprehension
Jacob, Carl, <strong>and</strong> Rachel are able to read text
with comprehension at levels at least commensurate
with their oral language ability. They
consistently demonstrate their underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g
of stories <strong>and</strong> expository text, answer<strong>in</strong>g literal
comprehension questions <strong>and</strong> discuss<strong>in</strong>g the
details from text. As would be expected, their
comprehension is better when text is more
concrete <strong>and</strong> familiar, rather than abstract
<strong>and</strong> unfamiliar. It is also not surpris<strong>in</strong>g that
these students struggle with <strong>in</strong>ferential comprehension;
however, their ability to apply basic
strategies is gradually improv<strong>in</strong>g. In spite
of their significant challenges with oral language,
all three students are read<strong>in</strong>g with basic
levels of comprehension.
Conclusion
364 / <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>-September 2009
The purpose of this article is to provide teachers
of students with ID specific <strong>in</strong>formation
about practical, research-based techniques for
teach<strong>in</strong>g their students to read. As Jacob, Carl,
<strong>and</strong> Rachel illustrate, students with ID who
face significant challenges can make important
progress <strong>in</strong> early read<strong>in</strong>g skills. The curriculum
<strong>and</strong> techniques that are effective for
students with much higher IQs are also effective
for students like Jacob, Carl, <strong>and</strong> Rachel,
but they must be implemented with high
degrees of fidelity by skilled teachers. Curriculum
<strong>and</strong> techniques should provide for
explicit, systematic <strong>in</strong>struction that is comprehensive
<strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>cludes extensive cumulative review.
Further, students should be explicitly
taught how to <strong>in</strong>tegrate <strong>and</strong> apply strategies
<strong>in</strong> the context of read<strong>in</strong>g connected text. Unfortunately,
most teachers of students with
ID receive very little tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g about effective
techniques for teach<strong>in</strong>g read<strong>in</strong>g. This article
is only one step toward provid<strong>in</strong>g these teachers
with specific guidance. Obviously, teachers