Cremation, Caste, and Cosmogony in Karmic Traditions.

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Marshall suggested that the height of the tower would have been about twelve metres, and thus, according to Dar, a tower surrounded on all sides with walls equal to its own height, makes no sense (ibid). Regarding the height of the columns this argument seems plausible, but regarding the height of the tower there is a circular reasoning. It is too early to dismiss the idea of a tower although we may agree that it does not make sense to call the structure a “tower” if it only reaches to the roof. What one may dismiss is, perhaps, Marshall’s suggested height of 40 ft. It is worth returning to the depth of the foundation walls again. The walls throughout are built of “coursed rubble” masonry, and they are carried on massive foundations, descending to a depth of 9 to 10 feet below the floor level. In the case of the inner wall the depth of the foundation project is from 6 inches to 2 feet beyond the face of the wall, whereas the depth of the outer walls is as much as 5 feet. What Marshall calls the “tower” has foundations which are carried down over 20 feet below the temple (Marshall 1951a:222-223), and for whatever purpose it was constructed, it seems likely that this structure was intended to rise higher than the rest of the temple, otherwise it is difficult to explain why the deep foundation of an inner structure was built. Therefore, as I see it, we are back to Marshall’s hypothesis that there was a tower in the middle of the temple, but the height has been greater than previously estimated, perhaps even 60 ft or higher. Thus, I agree with Marshall’s hypothesis that the Jandial temple is most likely a Zoroastrian temple. Although it is uncertain where the Fire-Altar has been placed, it seems plausible that the temple is an architectural hybrid combining Greek impulses with an Iranian type of tower in the middle. Whatever purpose this tower had – fire worship or funerals – it seems most likely, based on the architectural remains, that one might designate this temple as a Zoroastrian one. Taken into consideration that the royal palace in Persepolis was a Greek architectural masterpiece, the Iranians and Zoroastrians were not only familiar with Greek architecture but on certain occasions they preferred it. It seems that they, for whatever reason, needed the Greeks for their most prestigious buildings whether these were temples or palaces. At Taxila, there are four temples, which seem to have a Greek appearance, origin, or strong architectural influence. The Jandial temple (fig. 17.3) should be dated to the Greek period (ca. 189-50 BCE), and the temple was probably destroyed by a great earthquake in the first half of the first century CE (Marshall 1951a:229, 237). The Mohra Maliaran Temple, which belongs to the Ionic order of Greek architecture, was located 1500 metres west of the north-western corner of Sirkap City, and based on twelve coins of Azes I it has been dated to ca. 57 BCE, but since these coins have never been published it is difficult to say whether they belong to Azes I or II 260 (Dar 1984:57). This temple might be interpreted in different ways. If the rulers built the temple, it indicates that the Ionic style is not Greek per se since Azes belonged to the Sakas (or Scythians), who were Zoroastrians. The temple may also be a testimony of a strong Greek influence whether this represented a religious or ethnic community or a high degree of cultural bricolage and religious syncretism. Thus, it seems that the Mohra Maliaran Temple was built after the Jandial C temple was destroyed. If this is correct, it may indicate a Greek group of either ethnic of religious character which continued their practice, but it may also be relics from Zoroastrianism’s use of Greek monumental buildings. It has been argued that after the expiry of the Greek rule the Jandial temple lost its patrons, it was abandoned and systematically denuded of all its decorations before the building collapsed (Dar 1984:53). This does not explain why the Mohra Maliaran Temple was built during the reign of Azes. The presence of a new constructed “Greek” influenced temple may, on the one hand, describe the general process of the declining Greek influence during the Zoroastrian reign, but it may also highlight the pervasive role monumental Greek constructions had in the Zoroastrian religion. Unfortunately, since the chronology at a microarchaeological level is a bit uncertain (Marshall 1951a, b, c), it is difficult to be detailed regarding the cultural and religious development. What one needs to stress is the religious complexity and syncretism at Taxila. Religious monuments are not necessarily exclusive in the use, particularly since facets of various gods may be part of several religions. There are some factors which complicate the archaeological picture. Firstly, particularly at the Early Historic city of Sirkap at Taxila it is extremely difficult to differentiate between Jain and Buddhist stupas, let alone to which Buddha they are dedicated (Coningham 2001:74-75). Secondly, the first Vishnu temples are found in the 3 rd century BCE on the Indian sub-continent. In the 2 nd century the Greeks who settled in the Taxila area turned to Vishnu (Chakrabarti 2001b:49). The difference between the old Greek gods and the new Hindu gods seems to be minor, and this syncretism is also evident in Buddhist art and sculptures. A religious conglomerate: Knowledge transaction and common values The word “Dharmarajika” may denote a stupa erected over a body-relict of the Buddha who was the true Dharmaraja. It may also denote stupas erected by Asoka. Since nearly all the stupas containing Buddha’s relicts were known to have been erected by Asoka, it seems plausible that the term “Dharmarajika” is employed for both stupas containing one of those relics and/or stupas erected by Asoka (Marshall 1951a:234-235).
Fig. 17.3. Temple of Jandial from South-East. From Marshall (1960), plate VIII. Fig. 17.4. Dharmarajika: view of the Great Stupa from north-west. From Marshall (1960), plate IX. 261
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Death and Life-Giving Waters Cremat
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Preface Contents List of figures In
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The origin of Pashupatinath and the
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Fig. 5.1 Map of Bangladesh with Far
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In karmic traditions, death and lif
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constructions, it has often been ap
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Part 1: Cremating Death - Creating
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ethically conditioned (fig 1.2). Th
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The pervasiveness of karma linking
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Fig. 1.3. Pashupatinath temple and
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Fig. 1.5. Cremation priest lighting
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Fig. 1.7. Ghat management and servi
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theories of castes as an organisati
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Fig. 1.9. The sons collected the as
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highly polluted that the people wou
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24 Fig. 1.12. Durga Prasad Sapkota
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problematic (Levinson 1982:198), es
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(seeds, food). In life a person bec
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Fig. 2.1. Manikarnika Ghat, Varanas
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the dead, (they shall eat) their fo
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Fig. 2.6. The representation of cas
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degrees of purity and pollution. En
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Fig. 2.8. Caste structure according
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Nevertheless, it is preferable to b
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the sacrifier is the sacrifice. Thu
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partly a process by which the gods
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Chapter 3: Meditation upon death an
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Being a part of a religious elite i
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The dangers of social interaction S
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Third party observing and legitimat
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Fig. 3.4. Tyaginath sitting next to
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57 Top: Fig. 3.6. The grave of Nara
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the Mahabrahmans mostly consume the
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Religion and ritual Studies of deat
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purest in common sense is not alway
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Fig. 4.3. Modes of fleshly incarnat
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e reincarnated into regarding spiri
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Fig. 4.5. Hocart’s and Dumont’s
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impure and still treated as a Brahm
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Part 2: The Sisters Kali and Ganga
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Ganga Brahmaputra • Faridpur Bay
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Fig. 5.4. Ambikapur Shashan Ghat. F
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Fig. 5.6. Channel from the pyre whe
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The head is always supposed to be d
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Hinduism. She is employed as a care
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Only Hindus are cremated at the cem
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According to Hazera, Badol cremated
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Fig. 6.1. Statue of Jagadbandhu. 90
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Fig. 6.2. Rajani receives the bless
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His disciples are like missionaries
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In the Ashram all the expenses are
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Fig. 6.7. Burial in coffin. 98
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Fig. 6.8. Private Kali temple in Ba
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Fig. 6.9. Jagadbandhu temple in Ban
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The importance of the priest in rit
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the rituals, and they have differen
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108
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Fig. 7.1. The mighty Ganga. Fig. 7.
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Fig. 7.3. Tara. Fig. 7.4. Tripur-Su
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Fig. 7.11. Chinnamasta. 114
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immediate divine access and godly g
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Fig. 7.12. Pot-maker in front by th
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Fig. 7.14. The making of Durga. 120
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This image is the most important pa
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Fig. 7.17. Replacement of Shashan K
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Fig. 7.18. The Baishanti Durga puja
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tradition. The Bhaishanti Durga sta
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enlightenment and achieve liberatio
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132
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cloth. Although the Hindus in Farid
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Fig. 8.1. A combined Kali and Saras
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high-caste and priests as religious
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1979:115-118). As seen in Faridpur
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142
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144
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Fig. 9. 1. Map of Nepal. Kaligandak
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The opposite approach is the histor
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Fig. 9.2. Manang and Gangapurna gla
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Fig. 9.5. Bone grinding. 152
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Only 20-25 years ago air-burials we
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was completed by the end of the 18
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As a cultural construct water is al
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These sacrifices rebuild the deceas
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giving mother. A “spirit” is
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Gorakhnath promised the Nepalese th
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“Shiva, the god of eroticism, is
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Fig. 10. 3. Dagbatti - the lighting
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Fig. 10.4. Sexual engravings at the
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priori”, Jung argues; “The repr
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174
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are there in a quite objective sens
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Purana, “those who recite them wi
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forms of colour, 4) water with the
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Fig. 11.2. The spot where humans we
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Fig. 11.4. Bagmati originating from
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186
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Fig. 12.1. Sadhu fasting for Nepali
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If the river could not cleanse itse
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The trust is not directly involved
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Fig. 12.6. The outlet of treated wa
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As an example, once a complete drun
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Fig. 12.10. Bagmati River with clea
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positive or negative feedback upon
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this process happens slowly and pro
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Fig. 13.1. Decaying corpse at Nire
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achievement of a wanted state or co
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while unmarried girls and boys with
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Page 228 and 229: less “true”, unimportant, or in
Page 230 and 231: From the present to the past, urban
Page 232 and 233: Dating traditions - the development
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Page 246 and 247: Fig. 15.1. Gundestrup cauldron with
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Page 250 and 251: took place, at some time in history
Page 252 and 253: Fig. 16.1. Maneckji Seti Agiary in
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Page 274 and 275: Fig. 17.5. Dharmarajika: plan of re
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Page 278 and 279: Fig. 17.8. The “smaller” Buddha
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Page 292 and 293: of birth and death. The soul is ete
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Page 306 and 307: kept perpetually ablaze for over a
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Page 310 and 311: Manosha The patron saint of serpent
Page 312 and 313: Ratnasambhava The third dhyanibuddh
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Hence, I have a feeling that I am o
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Fig. 18.3. Ram Mani Gyawali, author
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314
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When it again closes then Shiva bec
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or the opposite? Is the Aghori capa
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A man, after taking a bath in the P
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Vishnu said: Obeisance to you, O de
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The linga is pure, auspicious and i
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326
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Cambridge. Barth, F. 1990. The Guru
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Art, Religion & Culture: 184-191. M
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Priest. Cambridge University Press.
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Insoll, T. 1999b. Introduction. Res
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Lahiri, N. 2000. Archaeology and id
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Ahmedabad. Mirza, H. K. 2002. Liter
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Gandhi National Centre for the Arts
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(eds.). Representing Hinduism: 51-8
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Cremation, Caste, and Cosmogony in Karmic Traditions.

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