Neurological Examination, clinical cases and neuropsychological ...

More documents

Recommendations

Info

23/07/54 Spinal cord The spinal cord is a long, thin, tubular bundle of nervous tissue and support cells that extends from the brain (the medulla oblongata specifically). The brain and spinal cord together make up the central nervous system. The spinal cord begins at the Occipital bone and extends down to the space between the first and second lumbar vertebrae; itdoes not extend the entire length of the vertebral column.Itisaround45cm(18in)inmenand around 43 cm (17 in) long in women. Also, the spinal cord has a varying width, ranging from 1/2 inch thick in the cervical and lumbar regions to 1/4 inch thick in the thoracic area. The enclosing bony vertebral column protects the relatively shorter spinal cord. The spinal cord functions primarily in the transmission of neural signals between the brain and the rest of the body but also contains ti neural circuits it thatt can independently d control numerous reflexes and central pattern generators. The spinal cord has three major functions:1.Serve as a conduit for motor information, which travels down the spinal cord. 2.Serve as a conduit for sensory information, which travels up the spinal cord. 3. Serve as acenter for coordinating certain reflexes. The spinal cord is the main pathway for information connecting the brain and peripheral nervous system. The length of the spinal cord is much shorter than the length of the bony spinal column. The human spinal cord extends from the medulla oblongata and continues through the conus medullaris near the first lumbar vertebra, terminating in a fibrous extension known as the filum terminale Spinal cord Somatosensory system Dermatome 8
23/07/54 Autonomic nervous nervous system) system (ANS or visceral system) is the part of the peripheral nervous system that acts as a control system functioning largely below the level of consciousness, and controls visceral functions. The ANS affects heart rate, digestion, respiration rate, salivation, perspiration, diameter of the pupils, micturition (urination), and sexual arousal. Whereas most of its actions are involuntary, some, such as breathing, work in tandem with the conscious mind. It is classically divided into two subsystems: the parasympathetic nervous system (PSNS) and sympathetic nervous system (SNS). Relatively recently, a third subsystem of neurons that have been named 'non‐adrenergic and non‐cholinergic' neurons (because they use nitric oxide as a neurotransmitter) have been described and found to be integral in autonomic function, particularly in the gut and the lungs. With regard to function, the ANS is usually divided into sensory (afferent) and motor (efferent) subsystems. Within these systems, however, there are inhibitory and excitatory synapses between neurons. The enteric nervous system is sometimes considered part of the autonomic nervous system, and sometimes considered an independent system. Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) and autonomic reflexes Alongside the other two components of the autonomic nervous system, thesympathetic nervous system aids in the control of most of the body's internal organs. Stress—as in the flight‐or‐fight response—is thought to counteract the parasympathetic system, which generally works to promote maintenance of the body at rest. In truth, the functions of both the parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous systems are not so straightforward, but this is a useful rule of thumb. There are two kinds of neurons involved in the transmission of any signal through the sympathetic system; pre‐ and post‐ ganglionic. The shorter preganglionic neurons originate from the thoracolumbar region of the spinal cord (levels T1 ‐ L2, specifically) and travel to a ganglion, often one of the paravertebral ganglia, where they synapse with a postganglionic neuron. From there, the long postganglionic neurons extend across most of the body. At the synapses within the ganglia, preganglionic neurons release acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter that activates nicotinic acetylcholine receptors on postganglionic neurons. In response to this stimulus postganglionic neurons ‐ with two important exceptions ‐ release norepinephrine, which activates adrenergic receptors on the peripheral target tissues. The activation of target tissue receptors causes the effects associated with the sympathetic system. The two exceptions mentioned above are postganglionic neurons innervating sweat glands—which release acetylcholine for the activation of muscarinic receptors ‐ and the adrenal medulla. The adrenal medulla develops in tandem with the sympathetic nervous system, and acts as a modified sympathetic ganglion: synapses occur between pre‐ and post‐ ganglionic neurons within it, but the post ganglionic neurons do not leave the medulla; instead they directly release norepinephrine and epinephrine into the blood. Sympathetic and parasympathetic systems Sympathetic nervous system Parasympathetic nervous system 9
Page 1 and 2: 23/07/54 415703 Cognitive Neuropsyc
Page 3 and 4: 23/07/54 Maintaining balance while
Page 5 and 6: 23/07/54 5
Page 7: 23/07/54 415703 Cognitive Neuropsyc
Page 11 and 12: 23/07/54 12 Cranial nerves: 1. Olfa
Page 13 and 14: 23/07/54 The Human Cerebellum: Clin
Page 15 and 16: 23/07/54 Plantar Flexion Dorsi‐ F
Page 17 and 18: 23/07/54 Limbic System Controls of
Page 19 and 20: ่ 23/07/54 Brodmann areas for hum
Page 21 and 22: 23/07/54 ทีมงานวิ
Page 23 and 24: 23/07/54 Axon terminal Synaptic cle
Page 25 and 26: 23/07/54 Central Noradrenergic nerv
Page 29 and 30: 23/07/54 Occipital lobe Vision proc
Page 31 and 32: 23/07/54 Primary visual cortex (V1)
Page 35 and 36: 23/07/54 The neural architecture of
Page 37 and 38: 23/07/54 Clinical significance Lesi
Page 39 and 40: 23/07/54 Main Objectives: 1. The te
Page 41 and 42: 23/07/54 Two Streams hypothesis: As
Page 43 and 44: 23/07/54 Clinical Correlates of Lim
Page 45 and 46: 23/07/54 The Frontal lobe is an are
Page 47 and 48: 23/07/54 Brodmann area 8, or BA8, i
Page 49 and 50: 23/07/54 Brodmann area 10, or BA10
Page 51 and 52: 23/07/54 Brodmann area 25 (BA25) is

Neurological Examination, clinical cases and neuropsychological ...

You also want an ePaper? Increase the reach of your titles

Delete template?

Save as template?