Edited by Rachel Duncan 4th Edition ISBN 0-907649-91-2 London ...

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14 RGS-IBG Polar Expeditions Manual reason you wish to visit. There are a range of categories of protected areas, e.g. Scientific Reserve, National Park, Biosphere Reserve, World Heritage Site, etc., with different regulations for each category and even site. 2.7 Humans and the Arctic The Arctic has been increasingly populated by humans since the retreat of the last ice-age. The Inuit of Greenland and Canada, marginalised and exploited by European and American traders and hunters have seen a rise in self-determination and some successful land settlement claims. Together with the Alaskan natives, the Norwegian Saami and the tribes of the Russian north, including the Yakuts, Chukchi and Aleut, the indigenous people of the Arctic, until very recently, lived as their ancestors had done during the early days of mainly coastal occupation, in small, nomadic groups with a rich culture but few material possessions. However, the exploration of the Arctic during the 18 th and 19 th centuries by whalers, sealers, missionaries and European expeditions under the flag of nationalism, saw the decline of the traditional way of life for many Arctic communities. This rate of change accelerated for much of the 20th century. Today, the ancient traditions are being actively preserved, not just for the tourist but so that the people of the Arctic can retain their identity. Prejudice and persecution is still however rife, with for example, the Saami of Norway still engaged with the government over rights to land. In the 21 st century the greatest threat to the Arctic is potential damage to the environment from the search and extraction of fossil fuels, not just from Alaska, but from beneath the icecap of Greenland and the Arctic Ocean itself. The Arctic is also being polluted by contaminants from more industrialised countries, with levels of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) reaching dangerous levels in predators at the top of the food chain such as the polar bear. The Russian Arctic is a particular threat with leaking oil and gas pipelines, nuclear test sites and polluted rivers. In contrast to the Arctic, the Antarctic has no indigenous people and the Southern Ocean was virtually unknown before the 16 th Century. During the 19 th and early 20 th century sealers and whalers decimated colonies of fur-seals, with factory whaling ships reducing some whale populations to virtual extinction. It is, however, the Antarctic Heroic Age of Exploration which has continued to capture the public’s imagination. Since the signing of the Antarctic Treaty in 1961 the Antarctic has been populated by scientists and support staff and more recently by tourists and travellers. There are a number of bases in Antarctica and on the sub-Antarctic islands, run by countries which have signed the Antarctic Treaty. Like the Arctic, Antarctica receives damaging industrial emissions and is a potential rich source of hydro-carbons. In 2050, when the Antarctic Treaty is due to be reviewed, there could be great international pressure to start extraction of fossil fuels to meet a world-wide shortage, if alternative sources of fuel are not in place. 2.8 Environmentally responsible expeditions Far reaching international agreements of the 1990s have placed fairly and squarely on every nation, local government and individual, a responsibility to plan our actions so as to limit adverse impacts on the environment. The overriding principle is that of sustainability. This idea is directly applicable to expeditions. You should leave the environment in which you are working, as you found it. Indeed you should aim to have a positive effect, clearing
Planning 15 up and identifying any damage caused by previous expeditions. Other principles which include such terms as: the precautionary principle, pollution prevention, intergenerational equity, polluter pays, public participation, conservation of biological diversity, and ecological integrity have been taken up by governments world-wide with surprising rapidity. What do they mean for expeditions? What effect can a small, four or five person expedition possibly have on the environment? Well, with a degree of care, very little. Of course not every expedition is that small: many have tens of people, use aircraft or snowmobiles for transport and the potential for environmental impact is far greater. But sheer size alone is not the only consideration. What must also be taken into account is the cumulative effect of your expedition added to those preceding or following you. E.g. perhaps a tourist ship visited the same area, a scientific research team worked there for three months or a second expedition will come later in the season. No expedition can be taken in isolation. Polar regions are fragile environments where fauna and flora battle to survive and human impact can do great damage. Co-ordination and management policies are therefore of paramount importance. 2.9 Environmental impact assessment The key to planning is to assess the environmental consequences of your proposed activity by writing an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA). You should predict the environmental impacts, assess their significance, consider alternatives to the activity, evaluate cumulative, long-term and trans-boundary effects and propose mitigating measures. The main points here are that your environmental impact assessment is predictive and should be done before the activity takes place. During planning, execution and write up of your expedition you should be able to say to yourself that you have acted at all times so as to minimise the impact of your actions. In addition to an EIA being a responsible part of expedition planning, it can also be a requirement. Rules differ between Arctic Polar nations and you should approach local authorities to see in what form an assessment is required and how it should be presented. If visiting the Antarctic, it is important to check the UK Antarctic Act 1994 and any amendments such as The Antarctic (Amendment) Regulations 2002 (available at www.tso.co.uk) to determine what kind of restrictions apply. Nothing can be said to have no impact, however, there are impacts that are so small that no lasting consequence can be measured. All expeditions, whether to the Arctic or Antarctic should be planned to have minimal impact. Preliminary assessment is a process that any expedition member can undertake, whatever their environmental knowledge. It can be used to check that you have considered all the potential effects of your planned trip and will help you to identify which ones are significant and how you can minimise the impact. Stage 1 is assessing what impacts your expedition might have on the: • Social or cultural state of the area you are visiting; • Landscape, wilderness and aesthetic values; • Marine environment; • Air quality; • Animals and plant life in the region;
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Page 3 and 4: 6. NAVIGATION......................
Page 5 and 6: INTRODUCTION TO THIS EDITION This m
Page 7 and 8: The Polar Environment 7 except for
Page 9 and 10: 1.3.4 Precipitation Figure 1: Wind
Page 11 and 12: The Polar Environment 11 UK MET OFF
Page 13: Planning 13 you will probably enjoy
Page 17 and 18: • Litter search completed before
Page 19 and 20: Campcraft, Equipment and Clothing 1
Page 27 and 28: 3.5.5 Head and face Campcraft, Equi
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Page 33 and 34: 4.2 Nutrition Food and Cooking 33 T
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Page 39 and 40: Polar Food Suppliers: Food and Cook
Page 41 and 42: Transport and Travel 41 and from Ne
Page 43 and 44: 5.2.3 Landing sites Transport and T
Page 45 and 46: Transport and Travel 45 If it is no
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Page 51 and 52: Transport and Travel 51 those ‘ba
Page 53 and 54: Morale Manoeuvrability Transport an
Page 55 and 56: Transport and Travel 55 • Packing
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Page 59 and 60: 6.2 Compasses Navigation 59 There a
Page 61 and 62: Navigation 61 Along with your sexta
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Websites: o Zeiss Yachtmaster Navig
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Communications 67 sizes that are hi
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7.4.2 Distress systems i) Emergency
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Communications 71 The selection of
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Communications 73 Avoid getting fue
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Chapter 8: SAFETY Safety 75 This ch
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Safety 77 For further information s
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Safety 79 There are a number of ani
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Safety 81 8.7.7 Midges and mosquito
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Chapter 9: POLAR MEDICINE Polar Med
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Polar Medicine 85 9.2.2 Food Food i
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Polar Medicine 87 Rescuers must be
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Polar Medicine 89 to undertake a sm
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Photography under Polar Conditions
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10.6.2 Film instructions Photograph
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Appendices 99 (0)1539 737757; fax:
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Appendices 101 HERBERT, W. (1969) A
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Appendices 103 BELETSKY, L & PAULSO
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Contacts Canada Appendices 105 Cana
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IV. Greenland (and Iceland) Appendi
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Appendices 109 Flugfelag Islands/Ai
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V. Svalbard (Norway) Appendices 111
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Appendices 113 TILMAN, W. H. (1987)
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Appendices 115 OUSLAND, B. (1994) A
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Permissions Appendices 117 Under th
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Appendices 119 SALE, Richard (2002)
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