OTTOMAN CORSAIRS IN THE WESTERN ... - Bilkent University

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though lesser in number, Portugal was able to control the regional trade of the whole area by a similar system to the Spaniards’ presidio system. The descendants of Cenghiz Khan, rulers of the Golden Horde were not in a better situation. The integrity of the Golden Horde had been crumbled after the defeat of 1398 against the armies of Timur. One of its fragments, the Crimean Khanate had already recognized Ottoman suzerainty while the others would later disappear in front of Russian aggression. The Russian conquest of Kazan in 1552 and Astrakhan in 1556 would appear as the natural consequences of the deterioration of their situation. Ottoman Empire, on the other hand, thanks to its military technology was the only Muslim state to challenge Christian world. There were calls for Ottoman intervention by those Muslim rulers who felt pressured by the expansion of Christianity. 21 Even though they have failed to respond to all of these calls efficiently, Ottomans pursued “a worldwide active policy of supporting Muslim countries which were overrun or threatened by the European expansion in the Mediterranean, the Indian Ocean, Indonesia, Africa and the Eurasian steppes.” 22 Hence, Süleyman’s pretensions for a universal monarchy were also palpable. He would play an active role in the Western Mediterranean, following Bayezid II’s policies 23 , organize an expedition to Gujerat in 1538, promise technical aid to the sultan 21 For an interesting example of the correspondence of the Muslim rulers in the Indian Ocean with Constantinople, see Razaulhak Şah, “Açi Padişahı Sultan Alâeddin’in Kanunî Sultan Süleyman’a Mektubu”, Tarih Araştırmaları Dergisi, 8-9 (1967), pp. 373-410. Also for the Ottoman policy in the Indian Ocean, see Halil İnalcık (ed.) with Donald Quataert, An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire: 1300-1600 (Cambridge, 1994), pp. 319-40; Svat Soucek, “Ottoman Naval Policy in the Indian Ocean”, in X. Türk Tarih Kongresi, Ankara, 22-26 Eylül 1986, Kongreye Sunulan Bildiriler, IV (Ankara, 1993), pp. 1443-6; Salih Özbaran, “Expansion in the Southern Seas” in Süleymân the Second and His Time, eds. Halil İnalcık and Cemal Kafadar (İstanbul, 1993), pp. 211-8; Salih Özbaran, “The Ottomans in Confrontation with the Portuguese in the Red Sea after the Conquest of Egypt”, in Studies on Turkish Arab Relations, I, (İstanbul, 1986), pp. 207-214. 22 İnalcık, “State, Sovereignty and Law”, p. 69. 23 For more details on the active policy of Bayezid II in the Western Mediterranean, see H. J. Kissling, “II. Bayezid’in Deniz Politikası Üzerine Düşünceler: (1481-1512)”, in Türk Denizcilik Tarihi, ed. Bülent Arı (Ankara, 2002), pp. 109-116. 13
of Sumatra and plan an unrealised campaign for the relief of cities of Kazan and Astrakhan. 24 However, Ottoman sphere of influence was not limited to the Muslim world. Ottomans had claims to the heritage of the Roman Empire and this was not limited to the eastern part of it. Since 1453, the conquest of Rome appeared in the imaginations of the Ottoman decision-makers. İnalcık considers the Ottoman support to France and the Protestants as a tool for the long-term policy of conquering Rome and uniting the Roman world. These separatist movements against the Holy Roman Emperor and Pope prevented the unification of Christian Europe against the Ottomans. 25 The idea of the universal monarchy was based on the Roman concept of the eternal empire and thus the existence of two empires was not acceptable for the Ottomans. Hence, Charles was not an emperor to the Ottomans but the king of Spain. İbrahim Paşa would address him as the “roy d’Hispaignes et des terres dépendantes audict Hispaignes”. 26 In another document dated 28 June 1533, preserved in Bibliothèque-National, a similar title was referred to: “Siz ki vilâyet-i İspanye ve ana tâ’bi olan yerlerin kralı Karlo”. 27 This is in accordance with the Ottoman claim that there should exist one emperor as there exists one God. 28 On the other hand, apart from the Ottoman expedition of 1532, Charles and Süleyman did not confront each other directly. In this rivalry, Europe was divided in two 24 İnalcık, “State, Sovereignty and Law”, p. 69. 25 İnalcık, “State, Sovereignty and Law”, p. 69. Also, see Fatma Müge Göçek, “The Social Construction of an Empire: Ottoman State under Süleyman the Magnificent”, in Süleyman the Second and His Time, eds. Halil İnalcık and Cemal Kafadar (İstanbul, 1993), pp. 97-8. 26 Jean-Louis Bacqué-Grammont, “Autour d’une Correspondence entre Charles Quint et İbrahim Paşa”, Turcica, XV (1983), p. 234. 27 La Bibliothèque National. Supplément Turc, No: 816, cited by M. Tayyib Gökbilgin, “Venedik Devlet Arşivindeki Türkçe Belgeler Kolleksiyonu ve Bizimle İlgili Diğer Belgeler”, Belgeler: Türk Tarih Belgeleri Dergisi, V-VIII (1968-1971), p. 115. 28 Joseph von Hammer-Purgstall, Büyük Osmanlı Tarihi, V, trans. Mümin Çevik and Erol Kılıç (İstanbul, 1990), p. 93. 14
Page 1: OTTOMAN CORSAIRS IN THE WESTERN MED
Page 4 and 5: I certify that I have read this the
Page 6 and 7: Western Mediterranean and of the Ca
Page 8 and 9: hükümdarının bu artan öneme g
Page 10 and 11: they should be hailed as well. I al
Page 12 and 13: 2.5 Redefined Foreign Policies…
Page 14 and 15: INTRODUCTION The Rise of a New Worl
Page 16 and 17: East Carolingian kingdoms. It would
Page 18 and 19: Habsburg axis; however, their son J
Page 20 and 21: The imperial crown was theoreticall
Page 22 and 23: unit succeeded to preserve its auto
Page 24 and 25: Christianity, his personal ardour f
Page 28 and 29: camps and the struggle was mostly c
Page 30 and 31: etween the two most powerful Cathol
Page 32 and 33: since”. 33 That was the reason wh
Page 34 and 35: crowns; a goal which could not be r
Page 36 and 37: when Charles VIII was planning a cr
Page 38 and 39: Muslim population, these efforts wo
Page 40 and 41: that of the landlords who were defe
Page 42 and 43: people and the extreme deeds had pr
Page 44 and 45: on the battlefield. Moreover, the e
Page 46 and 47: streams. Finally mountains rise ste
Page 48 and 49: In North Africa, Spanish operations
Page 50 and 51: etween the Genoese corsairs and the
Page 52 and 53: Surprisingly enough, the expedition
Page 54 and 55: Pedro Navarro, now the sole command
Page 56 and 57: north and Aragonese in the south. B
Page 58 and 59: the imperial crown in the Ottoman E
Page 60 and 61: Soucek added to this theory is the
Page 62 and 63: hand, the inner castle resisted. Wh
Page 64 and 65: Therefore, corsairs appear as the h
Page 66 and 67: the range of the Spanish artillery
Page 68 and 69: quasi-kingdom in the area where the
Page 70 and 71: over the rule. Until his arrival, i
Page 72 and 73: only failed in bringing sufficient
Page 74 and 75: landed, the situation was far diffe
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Oruç succeeded in capturing Tlemse
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command of Martin de Argote. This f
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Captain General of the Maritime Arm
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from Syria to Egypt. It was a quick
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In North Africa, where the social c
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court and the local nobility expect
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Hungarian campaign of 1526. 228 Fin
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century: 2.5.2. Ottoman’s foreign
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ascension to the throne. 235 The gl
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decisive extent. 245 The situation
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esieged by the French army. The rea
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unnoticed in other sources. In one
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With these new allies, he increased
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help was written down in details. I
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dominions. 284 This would help the
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creating serious problems for Habsb
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the fortress 289 ; and with that vi
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3.3. Ottoman Habsburg rivalry: 1529
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In 1533, Ferdinand’s envoy in Con
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According to Brandi, this cooperati
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“stupidity”. 323 This defeat al
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Nikomedia. 337 Naval power played a
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It was not the first time that the
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Kulaksız, who was the Captain of M
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Khayr al-Din spent the winter of 15
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the corsair under the name of the O
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Charles was relying on local elemen
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while 10 from Sicily under the comm
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cavalry abandoned the cause. Hence,
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wish to risk their lives to leave t
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when the imperials could present a
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Surely, corsairs did not consent to
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Doria decided that the time had com
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marching. In front of the right win
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the olive groves; however, “inexp
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other clauses of secondary importan
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Mediterranean.” 490 Furthermore,
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“Yo navegué ocho veces por el Me
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from French side to that of imperia
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over the city, he would be able to
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of the task of coastal defence. 50
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contribution of the corsair to the
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valid, the Emperor would need him.
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as immediate as that of the Ottoman
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Sanuto, Marino, I Diarii, 58 vols.,
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and Erol Kılıç (İstanbul, 1990)
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Kumrular, Özlem, Las Relaciones en
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200 Veinstein, Gilles, “Süleyman
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APPENDIX B Source: Belenguer, Ernes
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APPENDIX D Ferdinand von Habsburg 1
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APPENDIX F Tiziano, Portrait of Cha
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APPENDIX H Jean Clouet Porträt des
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