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Table 6. Important weed species in Japanese ricefields. Common name Species Family Annual grasses Barnyardgrass Barnyardgrass Sprangletop a Annual sedges Small flower umbrella sedge Echinochloa oryzicola Vasing. E. crus-galli (L.) Beauv. var. crus-galli Leptochloa chinensis (L.) Nees Cyperus difformis L. Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Cyperaceae Annual broadleaf weeds Mizuaoi b Monochoria korsakowii Regel et Maack Monochoria M. vaginalis (Burm. f.) Presl var. plantaginea (Roxb.) Solms-Laub. Toothcup Rotala indica (Willd.) Koehne var. uliginosa (Miq.) Koehne Ammannia a Ammannia multiflora Roxb. Purple ammannia a A. coccinea Rottb. Falsepimpernel a Linderna procumbens (Krock.) Borbas Oabunome b Gratiola japonica Miq. Eclipta a Eclipta prostrata (I.) L. Bidens Bidens frondosa L. Bidens B. tripartita L. Jointvetch b Aeschynomene indica L. Pontederiaceae Pontederiaceae Lythraceae Lythraceae Lythraceae Scrophulariaceae Scrophulariaceae Compositae Compositae Compositae Leguminosae Perennial grasses Rice cutgrass b Knotgrass a Perennial sedges Mizugayatsuri Spikerush Kuroguwai Bulrush Shizui b Koukiyagara Leersia oryzoides (L.) Sw. Paspalum distichum L. Cyperus serotinus Rottb. Eleocharis acicularis (L.) Roem. et Schult. var. longiseta Sven E. kuroguwai Ohwi Scirpus juncoides Roxb. var. ohwianus T. Koyama S. nipponicus Makino S. planiculmis Fr. Schm. Poaceae Poaceae Cyperaceae Cyperaceae Cyperaceae Cyperaceae Cyperaceae Cyperaceae Perennial broadleaf weeds Waterplantain b Alisma canaliculatum A. Br. et Bouche Saggitaria Sagittaria pygmaea Miq. Arrowhead S. trifolia L. Poamogeton Potamogeton distinctus A. Benn. Oenanthe Oenanthe javanica (Blume) DC. Alismataceae Alismataceae Alismataceae Potamogetonaceae Umbelliferae Algae Spirogyra b Spirogyra arcla Kutz. Zygnemataceae Pithophora a Pithophora zelleri (Martius) Wittrock Cladophoraceae a Serious mainly in southwestern Japan. b Serious mainly in northern Japan. Experience with rice herbicides in Japan 251
WEED MANAGEMENT RECOMMENDATIONS Prevention of weeds Weeds in ricefields and irrigation ditches should be eradicated by hand weeding, cultivation practices, and chemical control before they mature and scatter. The compost applied to ricefields also should be clean of weed propagules. Manual eradication. Hand weeding is still practiced by small-scale farmers. They pull barnyardgrass and other big weeds as they monitor their small fields every 2 or 3 d during the rice-growing season. Older, retired farmers also are available to do this kind of work. Water management. Flooding ricefields at 10-15 cm was found to be effective in controlling barnyardgrass and some other hygrophytic weeds, but the levees of Japanese ricefields are only high enough to flood at 3-5 cm. Shallow flooding has long been the standard recommendation, to encourage rice tiller growth and increase yields. Mechanical weeding. Man- and engine-powered rotary weeders are useful in controlling weeds, and some Japanese farmers still like to use them, especially to control perennial weeds which emerged from underground tubers after annual species have been controlled by herbicides. This method is not suitable for small-scale farmers, however, because of the heavy labor required. Rice-weed competition. Transplanted rice seedlings, especially older, larger seedlings, are highly competitive with weeds. Closely planted seedlings are more competitive than those planted at the usual density, although yields are not necessarily higher. The plant types of Japanese rice varieties are not very tolerant of weed competition and have little allelopathic activity. Cropping system. Late autumn cultivation of ricefields is recommended to decrease overwintering of perennial weeds. Japanese farmers usually use rotary tillers, but plowing has been found to be more effective in digging up the propagules of perennials. Double cropping or a rice - soybean rotation also is recommended. Rice weeds are decreased under upland crop conditions, and upland crop weeds are decreased under flooded rice conditions, in a 2- or 3-yr rotation. The economic returns, however, are not satisfactory. Chemical control. With labor shortages and the need for lighter work by aging farmers, chemical methods of weed control are the most popular in Japan. Herbicides can be expected to be the key technology of weed management in future. Biological control. Some organisms—insects, tadpole shrimp, fungi, shellfish, carp, and ducks—were studied for their usefulness in controlling ricefield weeds. Some were effective in farmers’ fields under traditional rice cultivation practices and were favored by farmers interested in organic farming. The costs—labor and enclosures of fields—were high, and sometimes carp and ducks needed to be guarded from homeless dogs and other wild hunters. These methods were successful for only a few small-scale farmers. Weed scientists are working to develop fungal diseases as bioherbicides for rice. 252 Shibayama
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DEDICATION To Keith Moody WEED SCIE
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The International Rice Research Ins
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Bioherbicides and weed management i
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ful insects caused adverse response
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The need to raise yields and mainta
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Any volume that dra
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Overview
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as more lucrative, full-time job op
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Table 3. Herbicide use in rice prod
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only 3.3:1. The benefit-cost ratio
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EFFECTS ON SOCIETY AND ECOSYSTEMS S
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mulate in soils and in water tables
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unds from the field into canals and
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tion. Even if herbicide mixtures ar
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plant pathogens for controlling gra
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spectrum herbicides glufosinate-amm
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De Datta SK. 1981. Principles and p
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Li KM, Li PZ. 1996. Effect of herbi
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Vongsaroj P. 1994. Weed control in
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i ce env ironments and how they res
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Soil fertility. Monochoria vaginali
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Such problems could be avoided by a
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Ho NK, Md Zuki I. 1988. Weed popula
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HERBICIDES IN UNITED STATES RICE PR
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LOSSES TO WEEDS IN U.S. RICE US. ri
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propanil, which remains the backbon
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4. U.S. rice yields and adoption of
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6. Use of herbicides to control bro
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8. Thiobencarb and molinate transpo
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oping programs that curtail negativ
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Dunshee CF, Jones JW. 1924. Results
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Impacts of herbicides
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Pesticide users The pesticide user
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Table 3. Frequency of pesticide app
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Poly- Multiple Eye Pulmonary neurop
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(weight/height) had the expected ne
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Table 5. Anticipated health costs o
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When no consideration is given to h
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MAFF. 1991. Pesticides approved und
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and analyzed. We used this data bas
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soluble herbicide is distributed in
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of the rice herbicides thiobencarb
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germination because they compete fo
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in N 2 fixation and nitrate reducti
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Table 3. Effects of pesticides on n
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transformations in soils are studie
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Floodwater invertebrates Applicatio
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tally prevented photosynthetic acti
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CITED REFERENCES Almazan LL, Robles
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Mandal BB, Bandyopadhyay P, Bandyop
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Smith RJ, Flinchum WT, Seaman DE. 1
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IMPACT OF HERBICIDE USE ON THE ENVI
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Factors that reduce toxic risk Phys
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Table 3. Persistence in soil of ric
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One infamous herbicide spill occurr
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investigated because of the large,
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Given the current state of knowledg
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Way JM, Newman JF, Moore NW, Knaggs
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powder)—one-third the total amoun
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tants, however—such as cyanide an
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In both 1987 and 1988, 42 t of copp
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compounds such as the germicide Aso
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otation of one wet season, one dry
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ECOLOGICAL FORCES INFLUENCING CROP-
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may also vary with the resource use
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crease competitive ability into cro
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Tilman D. 1988. Plant strategies an
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Table 1. Important rice weeds in te
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2. Costs of production of rice and
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covered only about 7,500 ha in 1993
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Table 5. Herbicide-treated area in
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Table 6. Dominant weed species in K
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cides in the mix. Most mixtures, wh
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Kim KU, Shin DH. 1993. Development
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INTEGRATED WEED MANAGEMENT IN RICE
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after crop establishment) mostly co
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Table 2. Most common rice herbicide
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Table 4. Examples of rice herbicide
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portant where direct method options
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too wet. Optimum moisture is needed
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For direct-seeded rice, the availab
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visible effects. These methods are
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CITED REFERENCES Ampong-Nyarko K, D
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Jikihara K, Kimura I. 1977. Benthio
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Watson AK. 1992. Current status of
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1. Framework for planning and imple
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Baseline data The problems associat
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3. Filling vacant areas in the fiel
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emained the dominant weed, their in
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6. Cultural practices in the Muda a
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LESSONS LEARNED FROM THE PROGRAM St
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Ho NK, Md Zuki I, Asna BO. 1990. Th
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Using mycoherbicides involves apply
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Community education also is importa
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the crop of interest. This should i
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asically biological, technological,
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cause they are likely to be applied
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Similarly, the risks of bioherbicid
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Baki MM, Azmi M. 1992. Integrated m
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Matthews GA, Bateman RP. 1990. Appl
Page 215 and 216: Watson AK. 1985. Host specificity o
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Page 219 and 220: While it may not be possible to ide
Page 221 and 222: CITED REFERENCES Ahmad S, Majid A,
Page 224 and 225: USING BIOTECHNOLOGY IN GENETIC IMPR
Page 226 and 227: Molecular markers are being used ro
Page 228 and 229: use of herbicides as part of a rice
Page 230 and 231: A final strategy would be to use bi
Page 232: Rathore KS, Chowdhury VK, Hodges TK
Page 235 and 236: Putnam and Duke (1974) postulated t
Page 237 and 238: Visual ratings were made 7 wk after
Page 239 and 240: nels; and most of the genotypes tha
Page 241 and 242: Leaf Root Leaf Root Leaf Root Leaf
Page 243 and 244: One hypothesis is that rice plants
Page 246: Use of herbicides in Asian rice
Page 249 and 250: icides such as 2,4-D and butachlor
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Page 253 and 254: Reasons for herbicide selection Far
Page 255 and 256: Carey VP III, Talbert RE, Baltazar
Page 258 and 259: EXPERIENCE WITH RICE HERBICIDES IN
Page 260 and 261: 2. Time spent weeding Japanese rice
Page 262 and 263: 3. Area of Japanese ricefields rece
Page 264 and 265: 4. Sequence of herbicide applicatio
Page 268 and 269: CURRENT PROBLEMS IN WEED MANAGEMENT
Page 270 and 271: DEVELOPING A WEED MANAGEMENT STRATE
Page 272 and 273: (Timmer et al 1983, World Bank 1993
Page 274 and 275: gets of plant growth regulators and
Page 276 and 277: in their role of implementing agric
Page 278 and 279: clearly needed if farmers are to av
Page 280 and 281: Kuhrt WJ. 1992. The California grap
Page 282 and 283: Participants Dr. Heidi Albers Food
Page 284 and 285: Dr. Gurdev S. Khush International R
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