Military Intelligence Professional Bulletin - Federation of American ...

The southern boundary of the Tohono O’odham
(formerly called Papago) Reservation runs for approximately
78 miles along the U.S. border with Mexico.
When the current boundary was established in the
mid-nineteenth century by the Gadsden Treaty between
Mexico and the U.S., no one seemed to notice
that the new border cut through the traditional
homeland of the Tohono O’odham (Desert People).
The Desert People generally disregarded the border
and travelled back and forth between Mexico and
the U.S. with few restrictions. Over the last several
decades however, tightened security has made
cross-border travel for the Tohono O’odham increasingly
difficult. For all practical purposes, the
Tohono O’odham who have always wanted to be left
to live in keeping with their traditional ways and
values (Him-dag), are now caught in the middle of
the ongoing international crisis on the border.
The Tohono O’odham
The Tohono O’odham have occupied the desert region
of southern Arizona and northern Sonora for
centuries. Their traditional semi-nomadic, agricultural
lifestyle was intrinsically intertwined with the
summer monsoon rains of the desert that brought
their crops to fruition.
Prior to the official demarcation of the Reservation,
the Tohono O’odham system of governance focused
on the family, clan, and village. Traditionally, villages
were led by headmen who settled disputes and
provided guidance. Headmen also protected the sacred
artifacts of the village and made certain that
ceremonies followed proper traditions. 4 Throughout
their history, the Tohono O’odham were, and have
remained, a peaceful people dedicated to the preservation
of their language, culture and traditions.
Spanish Influence
When the Spanish first arrived in the Santa Cruz
River Valley in the 1680s, they were surprised to
find irrigated fields spreading out for several miles
on both sides of the river near the village of Bac
(near the site of modern-day Tucson). Soon after,
the Spanish priest, Eusebio Kino arrived in the region
and almost immediately initiated the construction
of missions in order to convert the indigenous
people to Catholicism. He also sought to establish
European style ranches and mines. Although
he was primarily interested in saving souls, Father
Kino also had a passion for farming and ranching.
He introduced European crops to indigenous farmers
and encouraged them to move into permanent
settlements near the missions.
In the 1700s, the Apache began to raid O’odham
villages. 5 Despite European influences and Apache
raids however, the Tohono O’odham continued to
cling to their traditions. They were nonetheless
changed by these encroachments in that many adopted
the Catholic faith, learned to raise cattle and
European crops, and were forced to develop effective
defenses against those who attacked them. 6
The Tohono O’odham and Mexico
Mexico became independent from Spain in 1821.
By 1828, the Mexican government began closing
Spanish missions throughout the Tohono O’odham
homeland and for the most part, left the Desert
People alone. Even so, many Mexican citizens continued
to establish farms, ranches and mines in areas
traditionally occupied by the Tohono O’odham.
By 1840, such encroachments were becoming serious
enough to cause conflicts between Mexican immigrants
and the Desert People. At one point, the
Tohono O’odham battled with these immigrants
near the Mexican border-town of Cobota. 7
The Americans and the New Border
In 1846, the U.S. and Mexico fought over the location
of the international border between the two
nations. In 1848, the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
ended the war, but the exact location of the border
was not formalized until 1853 when both nations
signed the Gadsden Treaty. Despite the fact
that the new border cut through the heart of the
Tohono O’odham homeland, the U.S. and Mexico
did not include representatives of the Desert People
in the negotiations. Moreover, the U.S. did not grant
citizenship to the Tohono O’odham who lived on
the north side of the new border. 8 Without citizenship,
and without the protection of a formally established
reservation, the O’odham homeland north
of the border became part of the public domain of
the U.S., thereby opening these lands to American
settlers. As non-Indians began to settle on their
land, the Desert People moved further into more
isolated parts of their territory. 9 Additionally, the
Desert People and non-Indians disagreed over the
use of land and water. To put an end to this tension,
President U.S. Grant created the 71,000 acre San
Xavier Reservation near the city of Tucson, Arizona
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