362 Couquiauddolph<strong>in</strong> exhibits usually have a water volumebetween 1,500 and 3,000 m 3 . New exhibits havelarger volumes—between 4,000 and 10,000 m 3 .Accord<strong>in</strong>g to the number <strong>of</strong> animals and climaticconditions, turnover rate ranges between 1 1 ⁄2 h forthe smallest pools and 6 h for the largest ones. Insemi-natural facilities where volumes are <strong>of</strong>tenmuch larger, turnover rate can be as long as 8 h. Thesurvey data did not allow calculat<strong>in</strong>g an adequateformula to determ<strong>in</strong>e an appropriate turnover ratefor any given situation.Grates cover<strong>in</strong>g sumps should be carefullysecured to the bottom <strong>of</strong> the pool. While play<strong>in</strong>g,dolph<strong>in</strong>s might remove or push away the gratescover<strong>in</strong>g the sumps and might be sucked <strong>in</strong>to thedra<strong>in</strong>. If they are unable to withdraw, they maydrown (Sweeney, 1990; Sweeney & Samansky,1995; survey).The contents <strong>of</strong> grids, meshes, skimmers, andsimilar equipment will be carefully monitoredand debris regularly and frequently removed. Anyunusual material will be promptly <strong>in</strong>vestigated(Kl<strong>in</strong>owska & Brown, 1986).Pip<strong>in</strong>g design <strong>in</strong> an artificial environment shouldallow the pools to be emptied and filled rapidly forma<strong>in</strong>tenance and animal husbandry. Pool clean<strong>in</strong>gshould not be done by empty<strong>in</strong>g the pool. It is notrecommended to leave the animals stranded on thebottom <strong>of</strong> the pool because it <strong>in</strong>duces a high level<strong>of</strong> stress and great physical discomfort due to thelack <strong>of</strong> buoyancy. It is preferable to use specialunderwater devices that are operated automatically,remotely, or with the assistance <strong>of</strong> divers.Pools and lagoons need an appropriate dra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>gsystem to discharge unwanted water. Water spilledby the animals, ra<strong>in</strong>water, and clean<strong>in</strong>g water shouldnot be allowed to re-enter the pool. L<strong>in</strong>ear grate-covereddra<strong>in</strong>s can be placed around the perimeter <strong>of</strong>the pools. L<strong>in</strong>ear dra<strong>in</strong>s collect much larger amounts<strong>of</strong> water than gully traps, provided that appropriatepip<strong>in</strong>g is <strong>in</strong>stalled. In tropical regions, storm dra<strong>in</strong>shave to be <strong>in</strong>stalled to divert the maximum amount<strong>of</strong> ra<strong>in</strong>water and to ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> sal<strong>in</strong>ity level s<strong>in</strong>ce thepool surface already collects a large volume <strong>of</strong> freshwater.Pool decks will be designed to slope towardthe dra<strong>in</strong> and not toward the pool.Literature CitedAmund<strong>in</strong>, M. (1986). Breed<strong>in</strong>g the bottle-nosed dolph<strong>in</strong>Tursiops truncatus at the Kolmarden Dolph<strong>in</strong>arium.International Zoo Yearbook, 24/25, 263-271.Anonymous. (1979-1984, 1995). Specifications for thehumane handl<strong>in</strong>g, care, treatment and transportation<strong>of</strong> mar<strong>in</strong>e mammals (9 CFR, Subpart E, §3.100-118).Wash<strong>in</strong>gton, DC: U.S. Department <strong>of</strong> Agriculture,Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service.Figure 6.9. Floor dra<strong>in</strong>Figure 6.10. Vortex due to a too high aspiration <strong>of</strong> sumpAnonymous. (1992a). Standard methods <strong>of</strong> water andwastewater (18th ed.). Wash<strong>in</strong>gton, DC: AmericanPublic Health Association, American Water WorksAssociation, Water Environment Federation.Anonymous. (1992b). Guidel<strong>in</strong>es for the care, hold<strong>in</strong>g andtransport <strong>of</strong> mar<strong>in</strong>e mammals <strong>in</strong> Queensland (Draft).Queensland, Australia: Queensland Department <strong>of</strong>Primary Industries (QDPI). 39 pp.Anonymous. (1997). Corona discharge ozone systems:Application guidel<strong>in</strong>es. San Luis Obispo: DELIndustries. 22 pp.Anonymous. (1999). WQA glossary <strong>of</strong> terms (4th ed.).Lisle, IL: Water Quality Association.Arkush, K. D. (2001). Water quality. In L. A. Dierauf &F. M. D. Gulland (Eds.), CRC handbook <strong>of</strong> mar<strong>in</strong>emammal medic<strong>in</strong>e (2nd ed.) (pp. 779-790). Boston:CRC Press.Boness, D. J. (1996). Water quality management <strong>in</strong> aquaticmammal exhibits. In D. G. Kleiman, M. E. Allen,K. V. Thompson, S. Lumpk<strong>in</strong>, & H. Harris (Eds.), Wildmammals <strong>in</strong> captivity: Pr<strong>in</strong>ciples and techniques (pp.231-242). Chicago: The University <strong>of</strong> Chicago Press.Castro, P., & Hubert, M. E. (1992). Mar<strong>in</strong>e biology.Dubuque, IA: WCB Publishers. 57 pp.Cornell, L. H. (1982). Husbandry <strong>of</strong> mar<strong>in</strong>e mammals.In K. Sausman (Ed.), Zoological parks and aquariumfundamentals (pp. 283-287). Wheel<strong>in</strong>g, WV: AmericanAssociation <strong>of</strong> Zoological Parks and Aquariums.
6. Life Support Systems 363Dierauf, L. A. (Ed.). (1990). CRC handbook <strong>of</strong> mar<strong>in</strong>emammal medic<strong>in</strong>e: Health, disease, and rehabilitation.Boston: CRC Press. 735 pp.Doherty, J. G., & Gibbons, E. F. (1994). Manag<strong>in</strong>g naturalisticanimal environments <strong>in</strong> captivity. In E. F. Gibbons,E. J. Wyers, E. Waters, & E. W. Menzel (Eds.),Naturalistic environments <strong>in</strong> captivity for animal behaviorresearch (pp. 126-139). Albany: State University <strong>of</strong>New York Press.Dunn, J. L. (1990). Bacterial and mycotic diseases <strong>of</strong> cetaceansand p<strong>in</strong>nipeds. In L. Dierauf (Ed.), CRC handbook<strong>of</strong> mar<strong>in</strong>e mammal medic<strong>in</strong>e: Health, disease, and rehabilitation(pp. 73-87). Boston: CRC Press.Fasik, J. I. (1991). Echolocation <strong>in</strong>terference <strong>in</strong> the presence<strong>of</strong> air bubbles. Proceed<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong> the 19th IMATAConference, Vallejo, California.Faulk, E. Y. (1990). Water quality considerations for mar<strong>in</strong>emammals. In L. Dierauf (Ed.), CRC handbook <strong>of</strong> mar<strong>in</strong>emammal medic<strong>in</strong>e: Health, disease, and rehabilitation(pp. 537-542). Boston: CRC Press.Ford, B. K. (1997). An update on the copper-silver waterpurification system <strong>in</strong> use at Gulf World. Sound<strong>in</strong>gs,22(2), 14-15.Geraci, J. R. (1986). Mar<strong>in</strong>e mammals: Husbandry. InM. E. Fowler (Ed.), Zoo & wild animal medic<strong>in</strong>e (pp.757-760). Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Company.Geraci, J. R., St. Aub<strong>in</strong>, D. J., & Hicks, B. D. (1986).The epidermis <strong>of</strong> odontocetes: A view from with<strong>in</strong>. InM. M. Bryden & R. J. Harrison (Eds.), Research on dolph<strong>in</strong>s(pp. 3-21). Oxford: Clarendon Press.Gregory, J. (1989). Fundamentals <strong>of</strong> flocculation. CRCCritical Reviews <strong>in</strong> Environmental Control, 19(3), 185-230.Herman, L. M., & Tavolga, W. N. (1980). The communicationsystems <strong>of</strong> cetaceans. In L. H. Herman (Ed.),Cetacean behavior: Mechanisms and functions (pp.149-209). Malabar, FL: University <strong>of</strong> Hawaii, R. E.Krieger Publish<strong>in</strong>g Company.Hignette, M., Lamort, B., Langouet, M., Leroy, S., &Mart<strong>in</strong>, G. (1997). Elim<strong>in</strong>ation des nitrates par filtrationbiologique autotrophe sur soufre en aquariologiemar<strong>in</strong>e. Mémoire Institut Océanographique Paul Ricard,pp. 7-13.Kannan, K., Senthilkumar, K., Loganathan, B. G., OdellD. K., & Tanabe, S. (1997). Elevated accumulation <strong>of</strong>tributylt<strong>in</strong> and its breakdown products <strong>in</strong> bottlenosedolph<strong>in</strong>s (Tursiops truncatus) found stranded along theU.S. Atlantic and Gulf Coasts. Environmental Scienceand Technology, 31(1), 296-301.Kennedy-Stoskopf, S. (1990). Immunology <strong>of</strong> mar<strong>in</strong>emammals. In L. Dierauf (Ed.), CRC handbook <strong>of</strong> mar<strong>in</strong>emammal medic<strong>in</strong>e: Health, disease, and rehabilitation(pp. 115-125). Boston: CRC Press.Kl<strong>in</strong>owska, M., & Brown, S. (1986). A review <strong>of</strong> dolph<strong>in</strong>aria.London: Department <strong>of</strong> the Environment. 247pp.Krajniak, E. (1988). Potential mar<strong>in</strong>e mammal exhibitphysical plant failures. Proceed<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong> the 16th IMATAConference, San Antonio, Texas.Liong, E., Hammond, D. D., & Vedros, N. A. (1985).Pseudomonas pseudomallei <strong>in</strong>fection <strong>in</strong> a dolph<strong>in</strong>(Tursiops gilli): A case study. Aquatic Mammals, 11(1),20-22.McDevitt, A. (1986). Dolph<strong>in</strong>s and whales improv<strong>in</strong>g.M<strong>in</strong>neapolis Zoo Magaz<strong>in</strong>e, 1, 1.Manton, V. J. A. (1986). Water management. In M. M.Bryden & R. J. Harrison (Eds.), Research on dolph<strong>in</strong>s(pp. 189-208). Oxford: Clarendon Press.M<strong>of</strong>idi, A. A., Rochelle, P. A., Chou, C. I., & Mehta, H. M.(2002). Bacterial survival after ultraviolet light dis<strong>in</strong>fection:Resistance, regrowth and repair. Proceed<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong> theWater Quality Technology Conference 2002, AmericanWater Works Association. 10 pp.Overath, H., Hartmann, M. G., & Gellissen, M. (1997).Bacteriological studies <strong>of</strong> the water <strong>of</strong> the DuisburgZoo Dolph<strong>in</strong>arium with respect to fish food as a source<strong>of</strong> contam<strong>in</strong>ation. Duisburg: Forshungszentrum JülichGmbH and Duisburg Zoo.Reeves, R. R., DeMaster, D. P., Hill, C. L., & Leatherwood,S. (1994). Survivorship <strong>of</strong> odontocete cetaceans atOcean Park, Hong Kong, 1974-1994. Asian Mar<strong>in</strong>eBiology, 11, 107-124.Ridgway, S. H. (1972). Homeostasis <strong>in</strong> the aquatic environment.In S. H. Ridgway (Ed.), Mammals <strong>of</strong> the sea:Biology and medic<strong>in</strong>e (pp. 590-747). Spr<strong>in</strong>gfield, IL:Charles Thomas.Smith, R. L. (1990). Ecology and field biology (4th ed.).New York: HarperColl<strong>in</strong>s.Spotte, S. (1991). Sterilization <strong>of</strong> mar<strong>in</strong>e mammal poolwaters (Technical Bullet<strong>in</strong> No. 1797). Wash<strong>in</strong>gton, DC:U.S. Department <strong>of</strong> Agriculture, Animal Plant Healthand Inspection Service. 59 pp.Sweeney, J. C. (1986). Infectious diseases. In M. E. Fowler,(Ed.), Zoo & wild animal medic<strong>in</strong>e (pp. 777-781).Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Company.Sweeney, J. C. (1990). Mar<strong>in</strong>e mammal behavioral diagnostics.In L. Dierauf (Ed.), CRC handbook <strong>of</strong> mar<strong>in</strong>emammal medic<strong>in</strong>e: Health, disease, and rehabilitation(pp. 53-72). Boston: CRC Press.Sweeney, J. C. (1993). Dolph<strong>in</strong> Quest protocol for veter<strong>in</strong>aryhealth care management <strong>of</strong> Tursiops & Steno.San Diego: Dolph<strong>in</strong> Quest.Sweeney, J. C., & Samansky, T. (1995). Elements <strong>of</strong> successfulfacility design: Mar<strong>in</strong>e mammals. In E. F. Gibbons,Jr., B. S. Durrant, & J. Demarest (Eds.), Conservation<strong>of</strong> endangered species <strong>in</strong> captivity: An <strong>in</strong>terdiscipl<strong>in</strong>aryapproach (pp. 465-477). Albany: State University <strong>of</strong>New York Press.van der Toorn, J. D. (1987). A biological approach to dolph<strong>in</strong>ariumwater purification: I. Theoretical aspects.Aquatic Mammals, 13(3), 83-92.
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