Otter (Lutrinae) Care Manual - Association of Zoos and Aquariums

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Association of Zoos and Aquariums 24 Otter (Lutrinae) Care Manual Chapter 4. Social Environment 4.1 Group Structure and Size Careful consideration should be given to ensure that otter group structures and sizes meet the social, physical, and psychological well-being of those animals and facilitate species-appropriate behaviors. A. cinereus: In zoos and aquariums, Asian small-clawed otters are monogamous, with both members of the pair helping to raise the offspring. Unlike L. canadensis, the otter parents and offspring should be housed together. Older siblings help raise the younger ones, and a family group or breeding pair can produce two litters a year with up to seven pups in each litter. Similar sized groups are sometimes found in the wild (Foster-Turley 1990). It is recommended that these otters be held in adult pairs, adult pairs with offspring, or single sex groups. The size of the group will depend on the size of the exhibit and the compatibility of the individual animals (Lombardi et al. 1998). The formation of single sex groups should be accomplished at a very young age to avoid aggression. A. capensis: A. capensis have been observed in multiple social situations. In fresh water inland systems, the male stays with the female and offspring (Rowe-Rowe 1978). Clans up to 10-15 individuals have been observed. In marine ecosystems, it has been noted that the male does not stay with the family group (Estes 1989). Females with pups are the typical family group (Chanin 1985), but this species is often seen alone (Chanin 1985). In zoos and aquariums, pairs have been separated during parturition and early pup rearing. This species has been held in pairs and in groups of 1.2 in zoos and aquariums (Reed-Smith & Polechla 2002). L. canadensis: L. canadensis are believed to be more social than most other mustelids (but not as social as some of the other otters), based on the findings of a number of researchers (Beckel 1982; Rock et al. 1994; Testa et al. 1994; Johnson & Berkley 1999; Blundell et al. 2002a,b; Gorman et al. 2006, M. Ben- David, personal communication; S. Shannon, personal communication). For example, Stevens & Serfass (2008) documented that out of 172 film documentations of otters using latrines, 59.3% were by single otters, 19.2% were by two otters, 17.4% were by three otters, and 4.1% were by four otters. A variety of social groupings have been documented, but in general, the following are most typical: female with offspring; lone male; group of males; lone female; group of males with sub-adult females; pair (during mating season only); or two females with offspring. Male groups have been reported by Blundell et al. (2002a, 2002b, 2004) and Hansen (2004); female groups were recorded by Gorman et al. (2006) Otter associations may vary with the habitat in which the animals are found. Blundell et al. (2002a,b) found otters living in areas rich in resources seem to show more of a tendency to socialize, particularly the males and sub-adult females. Discounting female and pup associations, the Blundell et al. (2002a,b) telemetry study found that females were asocial in 47% of their locations, while males were asocial during only 24% of their locations. Further, they determined that among the “social” otters, males were social in 46% of their locations and 63% of that time was spent in all male groupings. “Social” females were located in social groupings only 26% of the time, and 78% of that time they were located in mixed-sex groupings (Blundell et al. 2002a,b). Gorman et al. (2006) found in Minnesota that annual home ranges for males were 3.2 times greater than for females, and annual core areas for males were 2.9 times greater than for females. Core areas frequently overlapped with interactions between overlapping resident females and males most common (51.7%), while male-male (27.6%) and female-female (20.7%) interactions were slightly less frequent. Female core areas overlapped those of other females 22.2% of the time and males 15.8% of the time; male core areas overlapped with those of other males on average 15.7% of the time, on average. They concluded that river otters living in the upper Mississippi watershed “exhibited clear evidence of space sharing, suggesting that individuals in this population were neither solitary nor territorial….[otters] appeared to socialize to some degree with any individual for which they had an encounter opportunity.” Zoos and aquariums would qualify as “habitats rich in resources,” thus providing the opportunity to keep more social groupings of this species as found in some portions of their range. Ben-David et al. (2000, 2001a, and b) maintained 15 unrelated males in one enclosure for 10 months with little to no problem. There are no minimum or optimum group sizes for this species. To the contrary, this species’ behavioral plasticity allows the formation of social groups not normally associated with a typically solitary species. Preferred groupings include: multiple males, a male-female pair, one male and multiple females
Association of Zoos and Aquariums 25 Otter (Lutrinae) Care Manual (1.2), multiple pairs (2.2). The only social grouping not recommended is all female, unless they are related (or introduced at a very young age) and have been together continuously (Reed-Smith 2001). This does not mean it is impossible to introduce adult females or house unrelated females together, just that it is very difficult and frequently unsuccessful (Reed-Smith 2001, 2004b). See Introductions/Reintroductions and Appendix N for additional information. There are some indications that pairs raised together do not breed well; in situations where breeding is desired, one of these young otters may need to be switched with an unfamiliar animal. Multiple pair groupings should be monitored closely for signs of stress in subordinate animals. Groupings of multiple males with one female are not recommended, but can be maintained if monitored closely or separated during breeding season to prevent the males from fighting over the female or causing harm to the female with overly attentive advances (Reed-Smith 2001). L. maculicollis: This species is best housed as pairs or family groups. All male groups also may be a good option but not enough is known yet to determine how this natural social pattern works in a confined setting. While several field researchers have reported seeing large groups (10-20 individuals) of L. maculicollis (Proctor 1963; Kruuk & Moorhouse 1990; Kruuk 1995, J. Reed-Smith in prep), it is not known what role, if any, older siblings play in caring for younger pups or how often family groups join. Proctor (1963) reported observing groups of about five otters most frequently, a size believed to be consistent with a single family. Ongoing studies in Lake Victoria cite frequent observation of groups of 6-8 animals, at times constituted of animals of varying sizes (J.Reed-Smith, personal observation). It is considered unwise to introduce adult males and difficult to introduce adult females. In the latter case, some females show a marked preference for certain females over others. Compatible groups of females may show aggression towards one another at times, particularly if a female is in estrus (Scollhamer 1987). In one instance, older pups have been maintained in an exhibit with the adult pair and younger pups (R.Willison, personal communication); the female kept the older pup and adult male at bay as parturition neared. However, there have been reports of adult females ostracizing female offspring which required the young female to be moved (Benza et al. 2009). Reports from the wild that this species typically live as pairs, with both parents participating in pup rearing, have come under some doubt (Reed- Smith in prep). This has not been the case in zoos and aquariums, at least during the early phase of pup rearing; instead, the female raises the pups alone until they are active and swimming at which time the male is again allowed into the group (R.Willison, personal communication). Recent field studies in Lake Victoria, Tanzania (Reed-Smith in prep) recorded single animals, mother with young, two or more adult females with young, male groups/pairs and adolescent groups as the social configurations sighted. Optimal group size will vary with the size of the exhibit and compatibility of individuals involved, as with all otter species. P. brasiliensis: There is a high degree of pair bonding and group cohesiveness in Pteronura (Duplaix 1980). In the wild, a mated pair normally bonds for life, and all family members, including offspring (one and two year olds) from previous litters, care for new pups (Schenck & Staib 1994). In zoos and aquariums, this species should be housed as mated pairs with young up to about two years of age. All male groups (e.g., 2-3 animals) can be exhibited as an alternative. Females can be kept together, but these are generally only successful as related duos or animals introduced at an early age. There are a few reports of adult females living together ex-situ, but it is not known if these animals were related. There are no reports of the successful introduction of adult females and this grouping is not recommended. There are some indications that pairs reared together from a very young age, or introduced well before they reach sexual maturity, will not breed successfully (Sykes-Gatz 2005). Therefore, it is recommended that breeding pairs be introduced after they have matured sexually. In the wild, one litter of 1-6 pups is born annually. The pups are dependent upon the other family members for care, socialization, learning life skills, etc. In zoos and aquariums, the pair should be allowed to rear their pups together. Preventing such activities often causes significant problems, such as litter loss, and inhibits the socialization of older young who have to learn pup care from their parents. Both parents will take care of the pups, teach them how to swim, feed them, groom them, etc. On occasion, both will move them to different nest boxes. In the wild (Staib 2002) and in zoos and aquariums (Sykes- Gatz 2005), the sire may sometimes take pups from the den only to have them immediately returned there by the dam. This behavior is considered normal and should not be viewed with alarm unless it is accompanied by signs of agitation or excessive stress (Sykes-Gatz 2005). See Chapter 7 for additional information on pup rearing in this species.
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Otter (Lutrinae) Care Manual - Association of Zoos and Aquariums

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