Thermodynamics

300 | ThermodynamicsEnergysourceat T HT H = const.(1) (2)(a) Process 1-2Q H(2) (3)Energysinkat T LInsulationT H(b) Process 2-3T L = const.T L(4)Q L(c) Process 3-4(1) (4)T HT L(d) Process 4-1Insulation(3)FIGURE 6–37Execution of the Carnot cycle in aclosed system.that is, by using reversible processes. Therefore, it is no surprise that themost efficient cycles are reversible cycles, that is, cycles that consist entirelyof reversible processes.Reversible cycles cannot be achieved in practice because the irreversibilitiesassociated with each process cannot be eliminated. However, reversiblecycles provide upper limits on the performance of real cycles. Heat enginesand refrigerators that work on reversible cycles serve as models to whichactual heat engines and refrigerators can be compared. Reversible cyclesalso serve as starting points in the development of actual cycles and aremodified as needed to meet certain requirements.Probably the best known reversible cycle is the Carnot cycle, first proposedin 1824 by French engineer Sadi Carnot. The theoretical heat enginethat operates on the Carnot cycle is called the Carnot heat engine. TheCarnot cycle is composed of four reversible processes—two isothermal andtwo adiabatic—and it can be executed either in a closed or a steady-flowsystem.Consider a closed system that consists of a gas contained in an adiabaticpiston–cylinder device, as shown in Fig. 6–37. The insulation of the cylinderhead is such that it may be removed to bring the cylinder into contactwith reservoirs to provide heat transfer. The four reversible processes thatmake up the Carnot cycle are as follows:Reversible Isothermal Expansion (process 1-2, T H constant). Initially(state 1), the temperature of the gas is T H and the cylinder head is in closecontact with a source at temperature T H . The gas is allowed to expandslowly, doing work on the surroundings. As the gas expands, thetemperature of the gas tends to decrease. But as soon as the temperaturedrops by an infinitesimal amount dT, some heat is transferred from thereservoir into the gas, raising the gas temperature to T H . Thus, the gastemperature is kept constant at T H . Since the temperature differencebetween the gas and the reservoir never exceeds a differential amount dT,this is a reversible heat transfer process. It continues until the pistonreaches position 2. The amount of total heat transferred to the gas duringthis process is Q H .Reversible Adiabatic Expansion (process 2-3, temperature drops from T Hto T L ). At state 2, the reservoir that was in contact with the cylinder headis removed and replaced by insulation so that the system becomesadiabatic. The gas continues to expand slowly, doing work on thesurroundings until its temperature drops from T H to T L (state 3). Thepiston is assumed to be frictionless and the process to be quasiequilibrium,so the process is reversible as well as adiabatic.Reversible Isothermal Compression (process 3-4, T L constant). At state3, the insulation at the cylinder head is removed, and the cylinder isbrought into contact with a sink at temperature T L . Now the piston ispushed inward by an external force, doing work on the gas. As the gas iscompressed, its temperature tends to rise. But as soon as it rises by aninfinitesimal amount dT, heat is transferred from the gas to the sink,causing the gas temperature to drop to T L . Thus, the gas temperatureremains constant at T L . Since the temperature difference between the gasand the sink never exceeds a differential amount dT, this is a reversible