Full Journal of Contemporary Water Research and Education, Issue ...

38Hussey and Doversin water policy now is influenced by knowledgeand constraints constructed in the past. Overall,Frawley’s (1994) overlapping stages in theenvironmental history of Australia can be seenunfolding—pioneering exploitation, wise use fornational development, modern environmentalism,and sustainable development—with as yetunresolved final results 1 .The original and most enduring watermanagement regime in Australia comprised finescale cultural and resource management practicesof hundreds of indigenous nations and languagegroups, adapted to flexible livelihoods in a variableclimate. Although disrupted massively, the regimestill survives in practice, knowledge and law inparts of the continent. The recognition of nativetitles, return of indigenous people to the country andsurvival and resurrection of traditional knowledgeand lifestyle have added indigenous values incurrent resource management debates (Baker etal. 2001, Jackson 2005), providing a backdrop ofmore than 50,000 years.European occupation of Australia from 1788saw the imposition of British water managementideas and rules. Growing understanding of a highlyvariable climate saw much experimentation andstruggle, demonstrating the unsuitability of theBritish tradition of riparian rights. Led by Victorianpolitician and later Prime Minister Alfred Deakinand drawing lessons from domestic experienceand international examples, Australia leading upto and at Federation in 1901 established a systemof state control of water. The following shiftsnotwithstanding, the system proved durable as aninstitutional framework for the following century.Water was a public good, managed through publicpolicy rather than the private sector. The states andterritories, aided by Commonwealth money, workedto drive national development and agriculturalsettlement through public provision of irrigationinfrastructure and settlement schemes, culminatingin a massive dam-building exercise from the 1950-70s. The bulk of Australian water withdrawal was,and still is used in irrigated agriculture. Waterallocation was volumetric, the costs of supplywere not recouped and technical improvementsin efficiency were rarely evident. In the cities,public works and water utility monopolies createda ‘‘big pipe in - big pipe out” system that achievedtremendous public health gains, but overlookedenvironmental and efficiency issues. In remotelocations, abstemiousness was the norm but byand large, water management was a matter ofexpanding supply, with demand management andenvironmental considerations lagging far behind.The wise use movement in resource managementhad impacts on water management, but it wasthe questioning of a few economists, notablyDavidson (1969), of the costs and benefits oflarge works that called this trajectory to account,along with emerging environmental awareness.The global trend toward integration of water withland and vegetation management showed notablyin Australia as integrated or total catchmentmanagement, with particular reference to what wasto become the headline issue of the 1980s to thepresent; salinity (Dore et al. 2003, Ewing 2003).That catchment scale focus has since evolved towhere major resource management programsare delivered largely through regional (mostlycatchment-defined) processes and organizations.Haphazard, drought-driven spasms of informationgathering and policy development came and wentfrom the 1960s on, with an international standardset with the institutional settings and informationcoordination of the Murray Darling Basin initiative.Community-based initiatives became widespreadin water and land management, headlined bythe now famous Australian Landcare movement(Curtis 2003). The era of sustainability from 1992 isknown in Australia as the ecologically sustainabledevelopment era. It emphasized in water aselsewhere, the emerging challenge of integratingenvironmental, social and economic dimensions innatural resource management. The mid-late 1990ssaw a National Land and Water Resources Auditconsolidate previous fits-and-starts in informationgathering episodes.However, it was not resource managementexperience or environmental concern that wasthe impetus for the biggest shift of all, buteconomic policy. Via the Council of AustralianGovernments, comprising the heads of Australianstate, territory and Commonwealth governments,economic efficiency and competitiveness becamethe most pervasive policy shift of recent decades.Supported by significant Commonwealth fundingand intergovernmental agreements and schedules,UCOWRJOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY WATER RESEARCH & EDUCATION