WSPA/APE ALLIANCERECIPES FOR SURVIVALResearch is currently underway to determine prevalence and risk factors associatedwith SIVs, including the development of diagnostic assays designed to detect infectionin both human and nonhuman primates.4.5.2 Ebola haemorrhagic feverBy December 2004, 1,290 fatal cases of Ebola haemorrhagic fever had been recordedin humans across Africa (WHO, 2004). These infections have been linked to directcontact with gorillas, chimpanzees, monkeys, <strong>for</strong>est antelopes and porcupines, whichwere found dead in the rain<strong>for</strong>est (WHO, 2004).Ebola virus has been documented in wild populations of chimpanzees, gorillas andduikers. Epidemics have decimated ape populations in Gabon and the Republic ofCongo, reducing numbers by as much as 90% (WHO, 2004; WWF, 2003). One estimatesuggests that 10,000 apes have been killed by Ebola in recent years (Racer, 2004).Bushmeat vendors in Ouesso, Republic of Congo, reported a drop in bushmeat salesduring an Ebola outbreak in 2003, when people switched to eating fish, beef or chicken(IRIN, 2003).Training of local people to monitor the health of gorillas has assisted in theidentification and response to recent Ebola outbreaks (BCTF, 20003), but someexperts warn that international smuggling of Ebola-contaminated bushmeat couldtrigger outbreaks outside Africa, <strong>for</strong> example, in the US and Europe (Raffaele, 2005).4.5.3 Simian foamy viruses (SFV)Recent studies in Cameroon have shown that 10 out of 1,000 people in regular contactwith primates are infected with SFV, which can be interpreted to mean that thousandsof rural people have acquired SFVs from primates (most notably from Western lowlandgorillas, DeBrazza’s guenons and mandrills (Wolfe, 2004)). The implications of this interms of disease and human-human transmission have not yet been established.4.5.4 AnthraxSeveral sudden deaths in groups of well-studied chimpanzees in Taï National Park,Ivory Coast, between October 2001 and June 2002 have been attributed to infectionwith anthrax. They may have acquired it through eating infected meat, and humanseating infected bushmeat may also be susceptible (Leedendertz et al, 2004).Anthrax is a highly infectious, airborne virus, which can be transmitted through theskin (unlike SIVs, which are transmitted through body fluids) (Kümpel, 2005). Newevidence from Taï National Park and Dja Reserve, east Cameroon has identified uniqueanthrax strains in gorillas and chimpanzees that were previously unknown to science(Leendertz et al, 2000)4.5.5 T-Lymphotropic virusesT-lymphotropic viruses passed on from primates to humans are associated in humanswith lymphoma, leukaemia and neurological disorders.11% of primate species hunted <strong>for</strong> bushmeat are infected with T-lymphotropic viruses(Peeters, 2004; Wolfe et al, 2004).4.6 Ethical implicationsNo review of the bushmeat trade in relation to primates, especially the great apes,would be complete without some consideration of the ethical implications of eatingspecies so closely related to ourselves. This issue has been discussed by manyauthors (see <strong>for</strong> example Redmond, 1995, 1996, Peterson and Ammann, 2003). Somehave likened the consumption of ape-meat as almost cannibalism, whereas others arguethat long-standing cultural traditions should not be swept aside by Western values(although the latter argument could be used to defend actual cannibalism and manyother 'traditional' practices no longer considered acceptable in the 21st Century).Evolutionary proximity is a difficult argument to wield across the spectrum of taxa taken<strong>for</strong> bushmeat - where do we draw the line <strong>for</strong> acceptable consumption? Ninety-sevenpercent shared DNA? (just apes off limits) or Ninety-five percent? (all primates?) Giventhat we share nearly half our DNA with plants, this poses questions even <strong>for</strong> vegetarians!Rather than genetic measures, some have raised the issue of self-awareness. RobertBarron (1993, cited in Redmond, 1996) observed that "what makes human beingsmorally relevant is their possession of consciousness; in particular their consciousnessof pain... and of themselves as individuals with present and future desires that they wishto fulfil. The degree to which chimpanzees (or any <strong>for</strong>m of life) share these features is thedegree to which they command ethical consideration.” Thus, species with demonstrableself-awareness and ‘higher order intelligence’ – such as great apes, elephants andcetaceans – are arguably deserving of greater consideration than others lacking theseabilities.For great apes, at least, these arguments are academic because all species areprotected by law, and so hunting, trading and consumption of their meat, body-parts orinfants is illegal in every range state. Thus, their conservation is more an issue of lawen<strong>for</strong>cement than philosophy.4.7 OutlookPrimate extinctions are already occurring, both locally and completely. It is widelyconsidered that the great apes face their last 10 – 50 years but some researchsuggests this might not be the case <strong>for</strong> all species. For example, Marshall et al (2000),calculated time scales in which we can expect to see ape populations reduced by half.The results indicated a halving time of 58 years <strong>for</strong> gorillas, 14.4 years <strong>for</strong>chimpanzees and 11 years <strong>for</strong> orangutans.PRIMATE BUSHMEAT59WSPA/APE ALLIANCE58
Actions ongoing andtheir effectiveness5.1 General actions ongoing and their effectiveness5.1.1 Government and policy5.1.1.1 AfricaThe CITES Bushmeat Working Group (CITES BWG) has developed National BushmeatStrategies and Action Plans <strong>for</strong> three of the six Central African countries (Cameroon,Gabon and the Republic of Congo). The Government of the Republic of Congo hassince validated and adopted its National Strategy and is now seeking funding <strong>for</strong>implementation (CITES, 2004).CITES BWG also investigated wildlife laws and regulations in Central Africa, and thefindings of the study were adopted by all six countries. This study now serves as thebasis <strong>for</strong> review of national wildlife legislation, and some countries (Cameroon and theRepublic of Congo) are now reviewing and re-adjusting existing wildlife laws.CITES BWG was instrumental in the inclusion of bushmeat-related issues into the FinalCommuniqué of the 32 Ministers of the Africa Forest and Law En<strong>for</strong>cement andGovernance ministerial conference held in Yaoundé, Cameroon (CITES, 2004).CITES BWG has developed partnerships with regional biodiversity conservationinitiatives to integrate the bushmeat problem into Central African agenda (Agnagna,2002). The crisis proportions of the bushmeat problem are now being mainstreamedinto the Yaoundé Summit process through the Conférence sur les Ecosystèmes deForêts Denses et Humides d’Afrique Centrale (CEFDHAC), the Organisation <strong>for</strong> theConservation of Wildlife in Africa (OCFSA), the Council of Ministers <strong>for</strong> Forests ofCentral Africa (COMIFAC) and the Agency <strong>for</strong> the Development of EnvironmentalIn<strong>for</strong>mation (ADIE), thanks to the effective lobbying by CITES BWG. Ministers of theregion have strengthened the role of OCFSA as a direct result of this lobbying(CITES, 2004).The IUCN Regional Office <strong>for</strong> Central Africa (ROCA) is addressing the bushmeat problemin response to a resolution adopted by the IUCN in October 2000 and has become aACTIONS ONGOING5Opposite: Blackfrontedduiker,Rwanda61© Ian Redmond
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