The Significance and Sustainability of Charcoal Production in the ...

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Woodland in 2005/06, and in 2011? 2) Which human influenced causes can be found behind the change of the land cover? 3) How does the change of land cover influence on the local environment and on the local population? Finally, the study explores the possibilities to promote sustainable development, livelihoods and ecosystem services in the area. The third objective is reached by answering the following question: Which management systems could be used in Dakatcha Woodland that would both ameliorate the livelihoods of the local population and assure the conservation of biodiversity and ecosystem services? 1.2 Central concepts The main concepts and terms related to the study: ‘biodiversity’, ‘ ecosystem services’, ‘land use and cover change (LULCC)’, ‘forests and deforestation’, ‘woodfuels’, ‘sustainable development and livelihoods’, and ‘household’ are defined next. 1.2.1 Biodiversity The Convention on Biological Diversity specifies in the Article 2 the biological diversity as the variability among living organisms from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; and diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems (Busby 2002: 145; MA 2005). 1.2.2 Ecosystem services Ecosystem is a complex of plant, animal and micro-organism communities and their non- living environment interacting as a functional unit (Busby 2002: 145). According to Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA 2005) ecosystem services (ES) are the benefits people obtain from ecosystems. They can be divided in four types: provisioning services such as food and water; regulating services such as flood and disease control; cultural services such as spiritual, recreational, and cultural benefits; and supporting services, such as nutrient cycling, which maintain the conditions for life on Earth. All human beings rely upon the services of ecosystems and manipulate them either directly, for instance by extaracting forest products, or indirectly (e.g. emission of green house gases) in order to sustain life (Mertz 2005: 5). According to Boyd and Banzhaf (2007: 619), many components and functions of an ecosystem are intermediate products in that they are necessary to the production of services but are not services themselves. Some of the ESs are considered free of charge, such as resources in marine areas and access to terrestrial habitats. The North, that is rich regarding 5
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and relatively poor in biodiversity, utilizes many of the services provided by the ecosystems of the South (Mertz 2005: 6). According to Mertz et al. (2007: 2730) loss of biodiversity, degradation of ecosystems and subsequent reduction in goods and services are seen as major barriers to the achievement of the United Nations’ Millennium Development Goals, which makes them an important factor in poverty alleviation. 1.2.3 Land use and land cover change (LULCC) Land-use and land-cover change (LULCC) is a general term for direct and indirect consequances of human modification of Earth's terrestrial surface to secure essential resources. LULCC drives changes, such as climate change, biodiversity loss and pollution of water, soils and air, in ecosystems and environmental processes at local, regional and global scales. Land cover refers to the physical and biological cover over the surface of land, including water, vegetation, bare soil, and/or artificial structures (EOEARTH 2011). The change in land cover can take place in two ways: inside a class (for instance change of closed woodland to open woodland) or between classes (from bushland to grassland, for instance) (FAO 2005: 6). Land use is defined by natural scientists in terms of syndromes of human activities such as agriculture and forestry that alter land surface processes. Social scientists and land managers define land use more broadly to include the social and economic purposes and contexts for and within which lands are managed or left unmanaged (EOEARTH 2011). While land cover may be observed directly in the field or by RS applications observations of land use and its changes generally require the integration of natural and social science methods to determine which human activities are occurring in different parts of the landscape, even when land cover appears to be the same. As a result, investigation of the causes and consequences of LULCC requires an interdisciplinary approach (EOEARTH 2011). 1.2.4 Forests and deforestation According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) forest is a land spanning more than 0.5 hectares with trees higher than five meters and a canopy cover of more than 10 percent, or trees able to reach these thresholds in situ (FAO 2010b: 9-10). Arnold et al. (2003) has defined forests “to include all resources that can produce forest products. These comprise woodland, scrubland, bush fallow and farm bush, and trees on farm, as well as forests”. This wide definition of forests concentrates on the producing potential that relates forests to livelihoods (Somorin 2010: 905). Kenya Forests Act 2005 defines forests as: “any land 6
Page 1 and 2: Master’s thesis Development Geogr
Page 3 and 4: HELSINGIN YLIOPISTO � HELSINGFORS
Page 5 and 6: ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The study was made
Page 7 and 8: 5.1.4 Charcoal network in Dakatcha
Page 9 and 10: LIST OF TABLES Table 1. Coordinate
Page 11 and 12: MA&D Market Analysis & Development
Page 13 and 14: y human and natural factors that ca
Page 15: interviews (2 from October 2010 and
Page 19 and 20: 1.2.6 Sustainable development and l
Page 21 and 22: including local communities and the
Page 23 and 24: Microsoft Office 2007 package was u
Page 25 and 26: makers; local dwellers; police men;
Page 27 and 28: 2.2.2 DEM, topographical maps and s
Page 29 and 30: 2.2.3 SPOT- satellite images and th
Page 31 and 32: scenes were converted to ATsatellit
Page 33 and 34: Actual classification was performed
Page 35 and 36: 3. LOCAL SETTING OF DAKATCHA WOODLA
Page 37 and 38: Data for the topography mapping is
Page 39 and 40: The mean annual temperature on the
Page 41 and 42: ushes and climbers usually between
Page 43 and 44: 65: 2.6 percent. The total life exp
Page 45 and 46: ease the adaptation or technology;
Page 47 and 48: (SACCOs) (KNBS 2007: v). Money tran
Page 49 and 50: In 2005, community members establis
Page 51 and 52: 3.2.3 Management of Dakatcha Woodla
Page 53 and 54: woodlands and size of individual la
Page 55 and 56: 58.3 percent from 1975 to 2000. The
Page 57 and 58: issues (Bryant et al. 1997: 17-18).
Page 59 and 60: Table 6. The different interests am
Page 61 and 62: The state remains a central actor i
Page 63 and 64: On the other hand, focusing on land
Page 65 and 66: (Hakkarainen & Wilska 2007: 95). Le
Page 67 and 68:
exploitation of resources in a prot
Page 69 and 70:
All the changes in forest managemen
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Commercial Afforestation), is a pro
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accumulate assets, but also by crea
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dependent on charcoal (KNBS 2007: 1
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carbon monoxide, methane and partic
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seem to be more productive and prof
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4.5.1 Sustainable woodfuels? Amous
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land-use development plans (Kinyanj
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Household Energy Network (HEDON) st
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same energy consumption and double
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5. RESULTS Results from the questio
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of the households are situated 1,00
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kiosk/other business. 7 households
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The households are experiencing pro
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Figure 19. Household tree species a
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Figure 22. Correlation between fire
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them about the environmental and ot
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Of the 53 households that were prod
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charcoal there (Ruwa 2010). Accordi
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5.1.5 Energy consumption in househo
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said they were promised jobs. MCC C
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5.1.7 Household awareness of excess
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or tree size; the fractional cover
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Mwanikah (2008: 42-44) identified s
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Table 10 presents the hectares and
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From the forest cover classificatio
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summarized in an error matrix. The
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acknowledged, the large amounts of
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Despite the poor conditions, pineap
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several smaller sacks could be foun
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Table 12. Dakatcha Woodland vegetat
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Anthropogenic factors have contribu
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practice, different sections of the
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natural environment and thus deteri
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however, that formalisation of the
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the other hand, the eco-tourism dev
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promoted by the Charcoal Regulation
Page 143 and 144:
My background as a development geog
Page 145 and 146:
Boyd, J. & S. Banzhaf (2007). What
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GOK (2009). The Forest (Harvesting)
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Information Systems for Resources M
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Program, United Nations Department
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APPENDICES: APPENDIX 1 Questionnair
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2.6.8. Is the charcoal produced for
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APPENDIX 2 Signature separability l
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Signature Separability Listing for
Page 161 and 162:
50 Msufi Mwitu Bamba Bombax rhodogn
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158 Mkayamba Delonix regia 159 Vepr
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Ignorance/ illiteracy High populati
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Water 6 5 5 83.33% 100.00% Woodland
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