The Significance and Sustainability of Charcoal Production in the ...

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The ACZs overlap with the agro-ecological zones (AEZs) of FAO. According to the FAO classification in Kenya the coastal lowlands zone IV is classified as Coconut-Cassava Zone; zone V as Cashew nut – Cassava Zone; and zone VI as Lowland Livestock – Millet Zone (Infonet-Biovision 2010; FAO 1996). Furthermore, zone IV corresponds to hard-leaved evergreen woodland where grass is up to one meter high. In the zone V, the natural vegetation is a short grass savannah with small leaved thorny trees and bushes where as the zone VI is portrayed by bushland with very short but still perennial grass, therefore it is suitable for ranching - if the grass is not eradicated by overgrazing (Infonet-Biovision 2010). 3.1.5 Vegetation cover and species Nature Kenya (2010b) has defined Dakatcha Woodland to be structurally comparable to the Brachystegia woodland and the Cynometra forest but not mixed forest in the Arabuko-Sokoke Forest. Despite the name Dakatcha Woodland, according to Nature Kenya (2010b), all visitors to the area describe it as a forest not woodland. Macharia (1996: 4) has described the structure of the vegetation in Malindi area according to the different layers of vegetation. Macharia’s four physiognomic classes are in line with field observations (in cursive): 1) The tree layer is occupied by single-stemmed trees more than six meters high – The main vegetation type is Brachystegia woodland composed of broadly spreading trees over 5 meters high and sparse ground cover; in areas including large Julbernardia and Manilkara trees, the understorey includes a variety of shrubs; 2) The high shrub layer is occupied by multistemmed shrubs which generally are less than six meters but more than two meters in height - Extremely dense broad-leaved thicket mostly less than 5 meters high with completely closed canopy, mainly Cynometra; 3) The low shrub layer is occupied by multistemmed shrubs, which are generally less than two meters in height - areas of scrub, dense thicket or bushland with succulents; and 4) The herb layer is occupied by both herbs and grasses - grassy areas with scattered trees and shrub. White (1983) has also made a classification of vegetation land cover in Malindi district including: Forest (a continuous stand of trees at least 10 meters tall, their crowns interlocking and usually on several layers); Scrub forest (intermediate between forest and bushland or thicket); Transition woodland (intermediate between forest and woodland.); Woodland (an open stand of trees at least 8 meters tall with a canopy cover of 40 percent or more with field layer usually dominated by grasses); Scrub woodland (stunted woodland less than 8 meters tall or vegetation intermediate between woodland and bushland); Thicket (a closed stand of 29
ushes and climbers usually between 3 and 7 meters tall); Bushland (an open stand of bushes usually between 3 and 7 meters tall with a canopy cover of 40 percent or more); Shrubland (an open or closed stand of shrubs up to 2 meters tall); Grassland (land covered with grasses and other herbs, with maximum 10 percent coverage of woody plants); and Wooded grassland (land covered with grasses and other herbs, with woody plants covering between 10 and 40 percent of the ground). The vegetation changes from evergreen to dry forms of vegetation from coastline inwards due to decreasing rainfall. Plant growth is also influenced by the soil type: the organic content, acidity, salinity, nutrients and compaction all influence the growth (Teel 1988: 21). Rational use of forest resources should thus be based upon accurate knowledge of land and soil properties (Kaufmann et al. 1991: 9; 18). The deep, loose sandy soils of the valleys and on the slopes around Marafa, for instance, are dominated by Brachystegia spiciformis (Macharia 1996: 23; Mbuvi et al. 2011: 17). According to Mbuvi et al. (2011: 17), Brachylaena huillensis-Cynometra webberi associations are prominent on red Magarini sands top of the low hills. Dominant species for red soils include also: Manilkara sulcata with understorey species such as Combretum hildebrandtii, C. schumannii, the cycad Encephalartos hildebrandtii, and the grass Bigitaria milanjiana (Macharia 1996:24). According to Macharia (1996: 23-24) these areas are part of the East African ‘Miombo’ woodlands. On these soils, after clearing the woodlands, people have planted pineapples and cassava. On more shallow soils it is common to find Croton Dichogamus, Euphorbia tirucalli, E. candelabrum, Acacia brevispica and other Acacia species. The imperfectly drained, but fertile black (cotton) soils with high clay content are characterized by Diospyros cornii, Thespasia danis, Acacia nilotica, the herb Aspilia mossambicensis and the grass Pennisetum mezianum. When wet, these soils are sticky and gummy and crack widely when dried out. Only a few tree types survive on this soil that is most common in low-lying flat areas with seasonal streams (Teel 1988:146). On the western side of Dakatcha Woodland the saline and sodic soils resulting from high evaporation rates and little rainfall, species such as Acacia zanzibarica, Suaeda monoica and the grasses Sporobolus helvotus and S. pellucidus, are dominating (Macharia 1996:24). During the dry season, good grazing areas for livestock can be found on clay soils accumulated on the alluvial soils with trees such as Acacia elatior and Balanites orbicularis and grasses such as Cynodon dactylon, Echinocloa haploclada, Setaria sphacelata and Sorghum verticiliflorum (ibid. 23). 30
Page 1 and 2: Master’s thesis Development Geogr
Page 3 and 4: HELSINGIN YLIOPISTO � HELSINGFORS
Page 5 and 6: ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The study was made
Page 7 and 8: 5.1.4 Charcoal network in Dakatcha
Page 9 and 10: LIST OF TABLES Table 1. Coordinate
Page 11 and 12: MA&D Market Analysis & Development
Page 13 and 14: y human and natural factors that ca
Page 15 and 16: interviews (2 from October 2010 and
Page 17 and 18: Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and re
Page 19 and 20: 1.2.6 Sustainable development and l
Page 21 and 22: including local communities and the
Page 23 and 24: Microsoft Office 2007 package was u
Page 25 and 26: makers; local dwellers; police men;
Page 27 and 28: 2.2.2 DEM, topographical maps and s
Page 29 and 30: 2.2.3 SPOT- satellite images and th
Page 31 and 32: scenes were converted to ATsatellit
Page 33 and 34: Actual classification was performed
Page 35 and 36: 3. LOCAL SETTING OF DAKATCHA WOODLA
Page 37 and 38: Data for the topography mapping is
Page 39: The mean annual temperature on the
Page 43 and 44: 65: 2.6 percent. The total life exp
Page 45 and 46: ease the adaptation or technology;
Page 47 and 48: (SACCOs) (KNBS 2007: v). Money tran
Page 49 and 50: In 2005, community members establis
Page 51 and 52: 3.2.3 Management of Dakatcha Woodla
Page 53 and 54: woodlands and size of individual la
Page 55 and 56: 58.3 percent from 1975 to 2000. The
Page 57 and 58: issues (Bryant et al. 1997: 17-18).
Page 59 and 60: Table 6. The different interests am
Page 61 and 62: The state remains a central actor i
Page 63 and 64: On the other hand, focusing on land
Page 65 and 66: (Hakkarainen & Wilska 2007: 95). Le
Page 67 and 68: exploitation of resources in a prot
Page 69 and 70: All the changes in forest managemen
Page 71 and 72: Commercial Afforestation), is a pro
Page 73 and 74: accumulate assets, but also by crea
Page 75 and 76: dependent on charcoal (KNBS 2007: 1
Page 77 and 78: carbon monoxide, methane and partic
Page 79 and 80: seem to be more productive and prof
Page 81 and 82: 4.5.1 Sustainable woodfuels? Amous
Page 83 and 84: land-use development plans (Kinyanj
Page 85 and 86: Household Energy Network (HEDON) st
Page 87 and 88: same energy consumption and double
Page 89 and 90: 5. RESULTS Results from the questio
Page 91 and 92:
of the households are situated 1,00
Page 93 and 94:
kiosk/other business. 7 households
Page 95 and 96:
The households are experiencing pro
Page 97 and 98:
Figure 19. Household tree species a
Page 99 and 100:
Figure 22. Correlation between fire
Page 101 and 102:
them about the environmental and ot
Page 103 and 104:
Of the 53 households that were prod
Page 105 and 106:
charcoal there (Ruwa 2010). Accordi
Page 107 and 108:
5.1.5 Energy consumption in househo
Page 109 and 110:
said they were promised jobs. MCC C
Page 111 and 112:
5.1.7 Household awareness of excess
Page 113 and 114:
or tree size; the fractional cover
Page 115 and 116:
Mwanikah (2008: 42-44) identified s
Page 117 and 118:
Table 10 presents the hectares and
Page 119 and 120:
From the forest cover classificatio
Page 121 and 122:
summarized in an error matrix. The
Page 123 and 124:
acknowledged, the large amounts of
Page 125 and 126:
Despite the poor conditions, pineap
Page 127 and 128:
several smaller sacks could be foun
Page 129 and 130:
Table 12. Dakatcha Woodland vegetat
Page 131 and 132:
Anthropogenic factors have contribu
Page 133 and 134:
practice, different sections of the
Page 135 and 136:
natural environment and thus deteri
Page 137 and 138:
however, that formalisation of the
Page 139 and 140:
the other hand, the eco-tourism dev
Page 141 and 142:
promoted by the Charcoal Regulation
Page 143 and 144:
My background as a development geog
Page 145 and 146:
Boyd, J. & S. Banzhaf (2007). What
Page 147 and 148:
GOK (2009). The Forest (Harvesting)
Page 149 and 150:
Information Systems for Resources M
Page 151 and 152:
Program, United Nations Department
Page 153 and 154:
APPENDICES: APPENDIX 1 Questionnair
Page 155 and 156:
2.6.8. Is the charcoal produced for
Page 157 and 158:
APPENDIX 2 Signature separability l
Page 159 and 160:
Signature Separability Listing for
Page 161 and 162:
50 Msufi Mwitu Bamba Bombax rhodogn
Page 163 and 164:
158 Mkayamba Delonix regia 159 Vepr
Page 165 and 166:
Ignorance/ illiteracy High populati
Page 167 and 168:
Water 6 5 5 83.33% 100.00% Woodland
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