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Applying the Science of Learning to Multimedia Instruction 87electronics that used a verbal instructional mode or a pictorial instructionalmode. In a series of experimental comparisons, the pictorial mode(which used words and pictures) was more effective than the verbal mode(which used mainly words) for all learners, and there was no indicationthat verbalizers learned better with the verbally based lessons and visualizerslearned better with the pictorially based lessons.Overall, the research on individual differences in multimedia learningimplicates prior knowledge as an important consideration but does notshow that cognitive style plays an important role.4. SCIENCE OF MULTIMEDIA INSTRUCTION: TRIARCHIC THEORY OFMULTIMEDIA INSTRUCTIONThis section explores evidence-based techniques for reducing extraneousprocessing, managing essential processing, and fostering generativeprocessing during learning.4.1. Three goals in multimedia instructional designAs noted in the cognitive theory of multimedia learning, the learner’scognitive capacity during learning is limited so the learner is able toengage in only a limited amount of cognitive processing in each channelat any one time. According the triarchic theory of multimedia instruction,drawn from cognitive load theory (Plass, Moreno, & Brunken, 2010;Sweller, 1999, 2005a), learners may experience three kinds of demandson their limited processing capacity—extraneous processing, essentialprocessing, and generative processing (Mayer, 2009, 2010; Mayer &Moreno, 2003).Extraneous processing is cognitive processing that does not serve theinstructional objective and is caused by poor instructional design. Forexample, including interesting but irrelevant stories and graphics maydraw learners’ precious processing resources. As another example, placingtext on one page and corresponding graphics on another page can causethe learners to have to scan back and forth, finding their place each time,and wasting precious cognitive resources.Essential processing is cognitive processing required to mentally representthe essential material in the lesson as presented and is caused bythe complexity of the to-be-learned material. As an example, anexplanation of how a complex system works (e.g., a system with eightinteracting parts) requires more essential processing than an explanationof how a simple system works (e.g., a system with three interactingparts).
88 Richard E. MayerGenerative processing is cognitive processing required to make sense ofthe essential material and depends on the learner’s motivation to exerteffort during learning. For example, thinking of related knowledge ormentally reorganizing the material as learners explain the material tothemselves are examples of generative processing. These three kinds ofprocessing demands are summarized in Table 2.Figure 2 presents three kinds of instructional scenarios that can occur:extraneous overload, essential overload, and generative underutilization.First, in extraneousoverload situations, the amount of extraneous processingand essential processing exceeds the learner’s cognitive capacity, so there isno capacity available for engaging in generative processing or even allneeded essential processing. As a result, the learner is not able to engage inthe sense making necessary for a meaningful learning outcome. In thissituation, an important goal of instructional design is to reduce extraneousprocessing.Second, in essential overload situations, the amount of essential processingrequired to mentally represent the essential material as presentedexceeds the learner’s cognitive capacity, even if all extraneous processingis eliminated. There is not enough capacity to support generative processingor even all needed essential processing, because of the complexityof the essential material. As a result, the learner is not able to engage inthe sense making during learning that is necessary for a meaningfullearning outcome. In this situation, essential processing cannot bereduced because learning the essential material is the instructional objective;thus, an important goal of instructional design is to manage essentialprocessing.Finally, generative underutilization occurs when learners have cognitivecapacity available to engage in generative processing but choose not to doso. For example, a learner might not be motivated to engage in deepcognitive processing necessary to make sense of the essential material orTable 2Three Kinds of Processing DemandsKind Description Cognitive processesExtraneous Does not support instructional Noneobjective; caused by poorinstructional designEssential Mentally represent the essentialmaterial; depends on the complexityof the materialSelecting (and someorganizing)GenerativeMake sense of the representation;depends on the learner’s motivationto exert effortOrganizing andintegrating
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Series EditorBRIAN H. ROSSBeckman I
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Academic Press is an imprint of Els
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viContents3. Science of Multimedia
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xContributorsHenry L. Roediger, III
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xiiPrefaceand there has been much e
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xivPrefaceInterventions for improvi
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2 Henry L. Roediger et al.delayed t
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14 Henry L. Roediger et al.Table 2
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16 Henry L. Roediger et al.improved
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22 Henry L. Roediger et al.9. BENEF
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26 Henry L. Roediger et al.feedback
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28 Henry L. Roediger et al.supporti
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30 Henry L. Roediger et al.of some
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32 Henry L. Roediger et al.Benefit
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34 Henry L. Roediger et al.Hasher,
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Page 53 and 54: 38 John Sweller1. INTRODUCTIONCogni
Page 55 and 56: 40 John Sweller‘‘baby-talk.’
Page 57 and 58: 42 John Swellerof cognitive or meta
Page 59 and 60: 44 John SwellerTable 1Natural Infor
Page 61 and 62: 46 John Swellerconfigurations. A ch
Page 63 and 64: 48 John Swellerreproduction results
Page 65 and 66: 50 John Swellerto mutation, without
Page 67 and 68: 52 John Swellerusing a complex or,
Page 69 and 70: 54 John SwellerThe human cognitive
Page 71 and 72: 56 John Swellerepigenetic system ha
Page 73 and 74: 58 John SwellerWe can determine lev
Page 75 and 76: 60 John Swellerthan memorizing the
Page 77 and 78: 62 John SwellerTable 2EffectVariabi
Page 79 and 80: 64 John Swelleroccurs when students
Page 81 and 82: 66 John Sweller3.3.3. The Split-Att
Page 83 and 84: 68 John Swellermerely restates the
Page 85 and 86: 70 John SwellerThe expertise revers
Page 87 and 88: 72 John Swellerobtained a reverse m
Page 89 and 90: 74 John Swelleractivities that othe
Page 91 and 92: 76 John SwellerRenkl, A. (2005). Th
Page 93 and 94: 78 Richard E. Mayercognitive theory
Page 95 and 96: 80 Richard E. Mayerpictures beginni
Page 97 and 98: 82 Richard E. MayerThe dualchannelp
Page 99 and 100: 84 Richard E. Mayerlearner selects
Page 101: 86 Richard E. MayerRosenthal, Rosno
Page 105 and 106: 90 Richard E. Mayer4.2. Evidence-ba
Page 107 and 108: 92 Richard E. Mayersituation could
Page 109 and 110: 94 Richard E. Mayer(Moreno & Mayer,
Page 111 and 112: 96 Richard E. Mayer4.3.1. Segmentin
Page 113 and 114: 98 Richard E. Mayerpresenting the w
Page 115 and 116: 100 Richard E. MayerThe multimedia
Page 117 and 118: 102 Richard E. Mayergame in industr
Page 119 and 120: 104 Richard E. MayerClark, R. C., &
Page 121 and 122: 106 Richard E. MayerMayer, R. E., &
Page 123 and 124: 108 Richard E. MayerSweller, J. (19
Page 125: 110 Timothy J. Nokes and Daniel M.
Page 128 and 129: Incorporating Motivation into a The
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CHAPTERFIVEOn the Interplay of Emot
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Implications for Enhancing Academic
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CHAPTERSIXThere Is Nothing So Pract
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There Is Nothing So Practical as a
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CHAPTERSEVENThe Power of Comparison
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The Power of Comparison in Learning
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CHAPTEREIGHTThe Ubiquitous Patterns
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The Ubiquitous Patterns of Incorrec
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CHAPTERNINEConceptual Problem Solvi
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Conceptual Problem Solving in Physi
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IndexAAcademic performancedrive the
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Index 301Correct method comparison,
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Index 303LLabor in vain, 28Language
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Index 305OOntological categories of
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Index 307WWeb-delivered multimedia
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CONTENTS OF RECENT VOLUMESVolume 40
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Contents of Recent Volumes 311Under
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Contents of Recent Volumes 313Volum
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