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Incorporating Motivation into a Theoretical Framework for Knowledge Transfer 115Table 1Cognitivist Classical Approaches to TransferApproach Scope oftransferIdenticalrulesAnalogyVery near;applies insituationsthat matchsimilarapplicationconditionsand goalsNear for bothnovice andexpert; farfor expertsKnowledge Transfer process EfficiencyProductionrulesExemplarsSchema Near to far Facts,principles,andconstraintsAppliedautomatically ifapplicationconditions of therule match thecurrent context(1) Retrieve anexample, (2) alignand map to thecurrent context,(3) generateinference, (4)re-represent, and(5) learnDeclarative toprocedural:knowledgecompilation;constraintviolationHigh efficiency,appliedautomaticallyModerateefficiency;more similartaskrepresentationswill result infaster alignmentand mappingLow efficiency,requires muchcognitiveresources and iserror pronetransfer in the laboratory raised important questions about the definition,assumptions, and processes of the classical approaches (Lave, 1988;Lobato, 2006). In this section, we briefly describe two of the alternativeviews including situative transfer and PFL.The situative perspective postulates that knowledge transfer is deeplyinterwoven into the individual’s activity in the world (Greeno, 1997,1998; Lave, 1988; Rogoff, 2003; see Gruber, Law, Mandl, & Renkl,1995 for a review). Transfer is dependent on a set of interrelationsbetween the individual and the environment and it is this set of interrelationsthat determines the likelihood of transfer (Greeno, 2006). Transfer isdescribed as ‘‘patterns of participation’’ and it is the replication of thispattern that determines transfer to future contexts. Research programsthat employ this view examine how the environment affords particularways of participating in authentic activities (Brown, Collins, & Duguid,
116 Timothy J. Nokes and Daniel M. Belenky1989). This view shifts the focus from the cognition of the individual tohow the individual acts in the world.In contrast to the classical theories, this view begins to incorporateaspects of motivation into transfer theory by focusing on how individualsparticipate in legitimate, authentic practices in a community (Lave &Wenger, 1991). With this focus on self-identity and participation incommunity practices there is great potential to link to work in the socialand educational sciences on self-concept, attributions, as well as workon group processes. Similar to this view, we see motivational processesas critical to the transfer story and important to include in a generaltheory of transfer. Our proposal differs from this in that we focus on adifferent aspect of motivation, namely, competence motivation andachievement goals, and instead of rejecting the classical mechanismsof transfer, we build upon these mechanisms by incorporating theminto our framework.The second alternative view of transfer is PFL. Here transfer is notviewed as the static transportation of knowledge components from onetask or situation to another but instead as the use of prior knowledge andexperiences to learn from new resources and information that then canaffect subsequent performance (Bransford & Schwartz, 1999; Schwartz &Bransford, 1998; Schwartz, Bransford, & Sears, 2005). This view hascriticized the classical approach as focusing too narrowly on transfer as aform of sequestered problem solving, with no consideration of additionalresources that the initial learning may have prepared people to use moreeffectively. The authors argue that this limits the types of transfer that onecan observe and creates a setting that is not very naturalistic or representativeof transfer in daily life.This view differentiates between transferring knowledge ‘‘into’’situationsversus transferring knowledge ‘‘out of’’ situations. Transferring‘‘into’’ focuses on how prior knowledge affects the interpretation, encoding,and learning of new information, whereas transferring ‘‘out of’’focuses on how prior knowledge can be used to solve new problemsand perform new tasks (i.e., the classical view). This definition broadensthe theoretical conceptualization of transfer and has contributed to thediscovery of previously hidden transfer phenomena (Schwartz &Bransford, 1998; Schwartz & Martin, 2004). However, like the classicalmechanisms, this approach does not incorporate motivational constructsinto the theory.Although situative and PFL approaches are often discussed as competitorsto the classical cognitivist approaches, we believe they arecomplementary, providing an important focus on components criticalto a general theory of transfer but lacking in the specific cognitiveprocesses. We believe that progress in understanding transfer dependson bridging the classical cognitive approaches with these alternative
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Series EditorBRIAN H. ROSSBeckman I
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Academic Press is an imprint of Els
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viContents3. Science of Multimedia
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xContributorsHenry L. Roediger, III
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xiiPrefaceand there has been much e
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xivPrefaceInterventions for improvi
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30 Henry L. Roediger et al.of some
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34 Henry L. Roediger et al.Hasher,
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36 Henry L. Roediger et al.Son, L.
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38 John Sweller1. INTRODUCTIONCogni
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40 John Sweller‘‘baby-talk.’
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42 John Swellerof cognitive or meta
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44 John SwellerTable 1Natural Infor
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46 John Swellerconfigurations. A ch
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48 John Swellerreproduction results
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50 John Swellerto mutation, without
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52 John Swellerusing a complex or,
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54 John SwellerThe human cognitive
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56 John Swellerepigenetic system ha
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58 John SwellerWe can determine lev
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60 John Swellerthan memorizing the
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62 John SwellerTable 2EffectVariabi
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Page 81 and 82: 66 John Sweller3.3.3. The Split-Att
Page 83 and 84: 68 John Swellermerely restates the
Page 85 and 86: 70 John SwellerThe expertise revers
Page 87 and 88: 72 John Swellerobtained a reverse m
Page 89 and 90: 74 John Swelleractivities that othe
Page 91 and 92: 76 John SwellerRenkl, A. (2005). Th
Page 93 and 94: 78 Richard E. Mayercognitive theory
Page 95 and 96: 80 Richard E. Mayerpictures beginni
Page 97 and 98: 82 Richard E. MayerThe dualchannelp
Page 99 and 100: 84 Richard E. Mayerlearner selects
Page 101 and 102: 86 Richard E. MayerRosenthal, Rosno
Page 103 and 104: 88 Richard E. MayerGenerative proce
Page 105 and 106: 90 Richard E. Mayer4.2. Evidence-ba
Page 107 and 108: 92 Richard E. Mayersituation could
Page 109 and 110: 94 Richard E. Mayer(Moreno & Mayer,
Page 111 and 112: 96 Richard E. Mayer4.3.1. Segmentin
Page 113 and 114: 98 Richard E. Mayerpresenting the w
Page 115 and 116: 100 Richard E. MayerThe multimedia
Page 117 and 118: 102 Richard E. Mayergame in industr
Page 119 and 120: 104 Richard E. MayerClark, R. C., &
Page 121 and 122: 106 Richard E. MayerMayer, R. E., &
Page 123 and 124: 108 Richard E. MayerSweller, J. (19
Page 125: 110 Timothy J. Nokes and Daniel M.
Page 128 and 129: Incorporating Motivation into a The
Page 152 and 153: CHAPTERFIVEOn the Interplay of Emot
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Implications for Enhancing Academic
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CHAPTERSIXThere Is Nothing So Pract
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There Is Nothing So Practical as a
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CHAPTERSEVENThe Power of Comparison
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The Power of Comparison in Learning
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CHAPTEREIGHTThe Ubiquitous Patterns
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The Ubiquitous Patterns of Incorrec
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CHAPTERNINEConceptual Problem Solvi
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Conceptual Problem Solving in Physi
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IndexAAcademic performancedrive the
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Index 301Correct method comparison,
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Index 303LLabor in vain, 28Language
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Index 305OOntological categories of
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Index 307WWeb-delivered multimedia
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CONTENTS OF RECENT VOLUMESVolume 40
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Contents of Recent Volumes 311Under
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Contents of Recent Volumes 313Volum
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