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CHAPTEREIGHTThe Ubiquitous Patterns ofIncorrect Answers to ScienceQuestions: The Role of Automatic,Bottom-up ProcessesAndrew F. HecklerContents1. Introduction 2282. The General Structure of Answering Patterns and the Critical Issue of 230Similarity2.1 Between-student answering patterns 2312.2 Within-student answering patterns 2312.3 Summary 2343. Existing Explanations for Incorrect Answer Patterns to Science 234Questions3.1 Misconceptions 2343.2 Knowledge in pieces or resources 2363.3 Ontological categories 2363.4 Summary 2374. The Insufficiency of Existing Explanations 2374.1 Limitation 1: patterns are typically assumed to be caused by 238high-level mental structures and processes4.2 Limitation 2: current explanations have limited predictive power 2394.3 Limitation 3: current explanations rarely consider response data 241beyond the response content5. Example: The Case of Competing Relevant and Irrelevant Information 2416. Bottom-Up Versus Top-Down Processing: Evidence from Answer Patterns 2446.1 Heuristic and biases 2466.2 Studies on bottom-up processes in science learning and 247performance7. The Phenomenon of Competition in Science Questions 2507.1 Relative processing times of relevant and irrelevant dimensions 2517.2 High salience of irrelevant cues: attentional learning 2558. Summary and General Discussion 2588.1 The relevance to science education 259Acknowledgments 261References 261Psychologyof Learningand Motivation, Volume 55ISSN 0079-7421, DOI 10.1016/B978-0-12-387691-1.00008-9# 2011 Elsevier Inc.All rights reserved.227
228 Andrew F. HecklerAbstractNonexperts often exhibit regular and persistent patterns of errors whenanswering questions about science concepts. Typically, these patterns areconsidered to be due to high-level mental structures such as concepts ormental models that are different from the relevant expert concepts. Here, Iconsider the systematic influence of automatic, bottom-up processes onanswering patterns to science questions. General evidence of the existenceof top-down and bottom-up processes is surveyed from a variety ofareas in cognitive science. Specifically, it is found that patterns of incorrectanswering are a significant empirical driving force behind manyinvestigations in learning and performance, and many of these areasinvoke the need for bottom-up mechanisms to explain observations. Theapplication of some of these mechanisms to the area of student answeringof science questions is discussed. In particular, it is hypothesized thatpatterns of incorrect answering on a broad class of science questions arestrongly influenced by the phenomenon of competition between relevantand irrelevant information in the questions. I investigate the particularcasesinwhichtheoutcomesofthiscompetitionaremediatedbytherelative processing times and allocation of attention to relevant and irrelevantinformation in questions. These mechanisms result in predictablepatterns of response choice, response time, and eye gaze fixations, and Idiscuss some studies suggesting that these mechanisms are at workwhen students answer specific physics questions. If, as suggested, automatic,bottom-up processes play a role in performance on science tasks,then this has important implications for models of understanding andlearning science.1. INTRODUCTIONThis chapter revolves around what could be regarded as the mostimportant empirical finding of science education to date, namely, thatpeople often answer simple scientific questions incorrectly, yet in regular,patterned ways. More specifically, following Piaget’s numerous demonstrationsthat children often answer ostensibly simple questions incorrectly,thousands of empirical studies have established that when conceptualquestions about simple natural phenomena are posed to students,their answers are often contrary to scientists’ answers, remarkably similarto those of other students, and resistant to traditional instruction (for lists,see Kind, 2004; McDermott & Redish, 1999; Pfundt & Duit, 2000). Forexample, students often believe, even after traditional instruction, that anupward traveling ball must have a net upward force acting on it (Clement,1982).
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xContributorsHenry L. Roediger, III
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xiiPrefaceand there has been much e
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36 Henry L. Roediger et al.Son, L.
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38 John Sweller1. INTRODUCTIONCogni
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40 John Sweller‘‘baby-talk.’
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42 John Swellerof cognitive or meta
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44 John SwellerTable 1Natural Infor
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46 John Swellerconfigurations. A ch
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48 John Swellerreproduction results
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50 John Swellerto mutation, without
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52 John Swellerusing a complex or,
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54 John SwellerThe human cognitive
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56 John Swellerepigenetic system ha
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58 John SwellerWe can determine lev
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60 John Swellerthan memorizing the
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62 John SwellerTable 2EffectVariabi
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64 John Swelleroccurs when students
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66 John Sweller3.3.3. The Split-Att
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68 John Swellermerely restates the
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70 John SwellerThe expertise revers
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72 John Swellerobtained a reverse m
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74 John Swelleractivities that othe
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76 John SwellerRenkl, A. (2005). Th
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78 Richard E. Mayercognitive theory
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80 Richard E. Mayerpictures beginni
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82 Richard E. MayerThe dualchannelp
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84 Richard E. Mayerlearner selects
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86 Richard E. MayerRosenthal, Rosno
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88 Richard E. MayerGenerative proce
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90 Richard E. Mayer4.2. Evidence-ba
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92 Richard E. Mayersituation could
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94 Richard E. Mayer(Moreno & Mayer,
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96 Richard E. Mayer4.3.1. Segmentin
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98 Richard E. Mayerpresenting the w
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100 Richard E. MayerThe multimedia
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102 Richard E. Mayergame in industr
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104 Richard E. MayerClark, R. C., &
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106 Richard E. MayerMayer, R. E., &
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108 Richard E. MayerSweller, J. (19
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110 Timothy J. Nokes and Daniel M.
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Incorporating Motivation into a The
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CHAPTERFIVEOn the Interplay of Emot
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Implications for Enhancing Academic
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CHAPTERSIXThere Is Nothing So Pract
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There Is Nothing So Practical as a
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There Is Nothing So Practical as a
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Page 216 and 217: The Power of Comparison in Learning
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Conceptual Problem Solving in Physi
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IndexAAcademic performancedrive the
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Index 301Correct method comparison,
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Index 303LLabor in vain, 28Language
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Index 305OOntological categories of
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Index 307WWeb-delivered multimedia
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CONTENTS OF RECENT VOLUMESVolume 40
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Contents of Recent Volumes 311Under
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Contents of Recent Volumes 313Volum
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