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Incorporating Motivation into a Theoretical Framework for Knowledge Transfer 121with the novice’s satisficing criteria. An example of this type of failureoccurs when a student is asked to ‘‘explain her/his answer’’ but insteadsimply restates or redescribes the answer or gives a surface response such asthose common in math and physics classes when a student explains that ananswer is the result of applying a particular equation without providing ajustification for why they are using that equation or what it means conceptually.This suggests that future work should focus on understandingwhat factors affect satisficing criteria for particular situations. We believethat motivational factors will play a particularly important role in determiningthe satisficing criteria for specific types of transfer scenarios.Next we describe how research in competence motivation, specificallystudents’ achievement goals, can be incorporated into the framework.Although other motivational constructs may also be incorporated, webelieve achievement goals in particular offer a compelling example of howresearch on motivational variables can serve to inform our understandingof knowledge transfer.3. COMPETENCE MOTIVATION AND ACHIEVEMENT GOALSMuch work in social and educational psychology has focused onhuman motivation, learning, and performance. A large portion of thiswork falls under the category of what has been called achievementmotivation (e.g., Covington, 2000; Dweck, 1986; Nicholls, 1984).This work concerns the factors that affect success in obtaining achievementand encompasses research on intrinsic and extrinsic motivation,attributions, evaluation anxiety, goals, and other constructs. Elliot andDweck (2005) have recently argued that this literature is better conceptualizedas research on competence rather than achievement becausecompetence provides a clearer, coherent, theoretical construct, andtarget of study.By focusing on competence as the core of achievement motivationresearch, Elliot and Dweck (2005) highlight the dual aspects of humanability and success, as well as inability and failure. They argue that competenceis a ubiquitous aspect of our daily lives and critical to many humanpursuits in work, academic, sports, and social contexts. Furthermore, thisconstruct naturally incorporates both approach motivations, or strivingtoward competence and avoidance motivations, or moving away fromincompetence. We adopt this view and suggest that competence plays aparticularly important role in knowledge transfer in academic settings. Weexamine the role of competence motivation as it is manifest in students’achievement goals.
122 Timothy J. Nokes and Daniel M. Belenky3.1. Achievement goals and transferA prolific amount of research has been conducted on the topic of achievementgoals in the past 20 years. Achievement goals are a person’s aim in anachievement setting. The dominant framework for considering achievementgoals posits two dimensions for goals: definition and valence (Elliot& McGregor, 2001; Elliot & Murayama, 2008). Definition refers to thecriterion by which competence is evaluated. When it is based on anabsolute standard or some internally set goal, this is considered a masterygoal. When it is based on a normative standard, this is considered aperformance goal. Valence refers to the seeking out of positive outcomes(approach) or the avoidance of negative outcomes (avoidance).Combining these dimensions results in four different separable goals:mastery-approach, mastery-avoidance, performance-approach, and performance-avoidance.This framework has been empirically validated,though discussions are still on-going about the reality and utility of themastery-avoidance construct.A student in an academic setting can have varying levels of each ofthese goals, and, as each of these goals are theoretically separate, theindependent effect of each can be examined. Over many studies, certaingeneral patterns of student behavior, affect, and achievement outcomeshave emerged for each achievement goal. Performance-avoidance goalshave been consistently linked with maladaptive outcomes, such as testanxiety, low self-efficacy, poor study habits, avoidance of help-seeking,procrastination, and ultimately, poorer achievement (in the form of testscores, term grades, etc.) (Elliot, McGregor, & Gable, 1999; Urdan,Ryan, Anderman, & Gheen, 2002). The findings for performanceapproachgoals are more mixed, and have spurred debate about theirrelative impact on students and achievement (see Harackiewicz, Barron,Pintrich, Elliot, & Thrash, 2002; Midgley, Kaplan, & Middleton, 2001).Performance-approach goals have been linked to negative behaviors andaffective variables, such as procrastination, test anxiety, and shallow processingstrategies (Elliot & McGregor, 1999) as well as positive behaviors,such as persistence and effort (Elliot et al., 1999). In terms of achievementoutcomes, performance-approach goals have been found to predictachievement measures, such as grades, particularly in college settings(Elliot & Church, 1997; Harackiewicz, et al., 2002). Mastery-approachgoals have been related to greater use of cognitive and metacognitivestrategies, such as elaboration, planning, monitoring, and help-seeking,a preference for challenge, higher levels of effort, less procrastination,greater interest, and long-term retention (e.g., Elliot & McGregor,1999; Ford, Smith, Weissbein, Gully, & Salas, 1998; Harackiewicz,Durik, Barron, Linnenbrink-Garcia, & Tauer, 2008; Pintrich, 1999;Somuncuoglu & Yildirim, 1999). However, there is only mixed
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Series EditorBRIAN H. ROSSBeckman I
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Academic Press is an imprint of Els
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viContents3. Science of Multimedia
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xContributorsHenry L. Roediger, III
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xiiPrefaceand there has been much e
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xivPrefaceInterventions for improvi
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34 Henry L. Roediger et al.Hasher,
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36 Henry L. Roediger et al.Son, L.
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38 John Sweller1. INTRODUCTIONCogni
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40 John Sweller‘‘baby-talk.’
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42 John Swellerof cognitive or meta
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44 John SwellerTable 1Natural Infor
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46 John Swellerconfigurations. A ch
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48 John Swellerreproduction results
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50 John Swellerto mutation, without
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52 John Swellerusing a complex or,
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54 John SwellerThe human cognitive
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56 John Swellerepigenetic system ha
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58 John SwellerWe can determine lev
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60 John Swellerthan memorizing the
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62 John SwellerTable 2EffectVariabi
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64 John Swelleroccurs when students
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66 John Sweller3.3.3. The Split-Att
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68 John Swellermerely restates the
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Page 87 and 88: 72 John Swellerobtained a reverse m
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Page 93 and 94: 78 Richard E. Mayercognitive theory
Page 95 and 96: 80 Richard E. Mayerpictures beginni
Page 97 and 98: 82 Richard E. MayerThe dualchannelp
Page 99 and 100: 84 Richard E. Mayerlearner selects
Page 101 and 102: 86 Richard E. MayerRosenthal, Rosno
Page 103 and 104: 88 Richard E. MayerGenerative proce
Page 105 and 106: 90 Richard E. Mayer4.2. Evidence-ba
Page 107 and 108: 92 Richard E. Mayersituation could
Page 109 and 110: 94 Richard E. Mayer(Moreno & Mayer,
Page 111 and 112: 96 Richard E. Mayer4.3.1. Segmentin
Page 113 and 114: 98 Richard E. Mayerpresenting the w
Page 115 and 116: 100 Richard E. MayerThe multimedia
Page 117 and 118: 102 Richard E. Mayergame in industr
Page 119 and 120: 104 Richard E. MayerClark, R. C., &
Page 121 and 122: 106 Richard E. MayerMayer, R. E., &
Page 123 and 124: 108 Richard E. MayerSweller, J. (19
Page 125: 110 Timothy J. Nokes and Daniel M.
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Page 152 and 153: CHAPTERFIVEOn the Interplay of Emot
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CHAPTERSIXThere Is Nothing So Pract
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There Is Nothing So Practical as a
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CHAPTERSEVENThe Power of Comparison
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The Power of Comparison in Learning
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CHAPTEREIGHTThe Ubiquitous Patterns
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The Ubiquitous Patterns of Incorrec
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CHAPTERNINEConceptual Problem Solvi
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Conceptual Problem Solving in Physi
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IndexAAcademic performancedrive the
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Index 301Correct method comparison,
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Index 303LLabor in vain, 28Language
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Index 305OOntological categories of
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Index 307WWeb-delivered multimedia
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CONTENTS OF RECENT VOLUMESVolume 40
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Contents of Recent Volumes 311Under
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Contents of Recent Volumes 313Volum
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