the psychology of learning and motivation - Percepts and Concepts ...

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The Ubiquitous Patterns of Incorrect Answers to Science Questions 249There are also a number of studies investigating the student responsesto the motions of objects, demonstrating that although many students mayanswer incorrectly on questions about motion represented by static displays,they often answer very accurately when the motions are animated(see Rohrer, 2003). For example, when given a choice of trajectories of aball leaving a curved tube, students will answer correctly more often whengiven an animation compared to a static diagram (Kaiser, Proffitt, &Anderson, 1985). However, the benefit of animation decreases withincreased complexity of motion (Kaiser, Proffitt, Whelan, & Hecht,1992). This difference in responding has been interpreted as due to thestatic diagrams cuing explicit (incorrect) reasoning knowledge based on,for example, impetus models and the animated format cuing implicitperceptual knowledge that is based on common experience.Finally, there are a number of studies on learning that indicate theexistence and importance of low-level implicit automatic processes relevantto mathematics concepts. For example, in a study on 8–10-year-old childrenlearning to solve simple addition problems, Siegler and Stern (1998)found that the time to solution was a reliable measure of the solvers’ implicituse of a shortcut strategy. They found a bimodal distribution of times tosolution with the solvers using the shortcut strategy solving the problemfaster. Over a period of weeks, students became better at solving theproblems and, perhaps most interestingly, many students started to usethe shortcut strategy (as measured by time to solution) before they wereexplicitly aware of it as verbally reported by the solver. This suggests thatthere is a process of unconscious strategy discovery.Furthermore, some researchers have investigated how math learningmay be influenced by the phenomenon of perceptual learning, which islower level, unconscious learning that results in an increase in the ability toextract information simply through experience (no explicit feedback isrequired). Kellman, Massey, and Son (2010) have found that simpleperceptual learning tasks improve performance on higher level math tasks,for example, by increasing the learner’s ability to focus on relevant ratherthan irrelevant dimensions. Goldstone, Landy, and Son (2010) provideevidence for the argument that the low-level perceptual system canadapt (i.e., learn) to achieve specific purposes, such as automatic recognitionof symbols or diagrams in math and science, and this learnedautomaticity at least partially explains continual success on math andscience tasks. Both of these examples highlight the educational possibilitiesof tapping into low-level processes and making required tasksautomatic in order to improve math and science performance.In sum, there are a small number of studies that provide evidence forthe idea that automatic bottom-up processes can influence student learningand answering on science and math questions. Some of these studiesused other modes of measurement such as response time and nonverbal
250 Andrew F. Hecklerresponses that can help to support the claim that automatic processes areinvolved. In the next section, I will describe how a large class of sciencequestions involve competing dimensions, and automatic bottom-up processesmay at least partially cause the known misconception-like answeringpatterns to these questions.7. THE PHENOMENON OF COMPETITION IN SCIENCE QUESTIONSSection 5 described an example in which competing relevant andirrelevant information (from the perspective of an expert) was present in ascience question, and many students consistently based their answer onthe irrelevant information. In this section, I will discuss in more detail thephenomenon of competition between relevant and irrelevant informationin science questions, and the outcomes of this competition as mediated bythe low-level mechanisms of relative processing time and allocation ofattention. The phenomenon of competition in science questions and itsrole in misconception-like answering patterns is described in three points:First, it is assumed that students may consider—either implicitly orexplicitly—a number of dimensions (e.g., variables or features) whenanswering science questions. I would like to emphasize that the dimensionsconsidered by a novice are not always the same dimensions consideredby an expert. Novice students may utilize dimensions not scientificallyvalid according to experts because the students may nonethelessperceive these dimensions as relevant. For example, when determiningthe period of a pendulum, many students may consider both the mass andlength of the pendulum (see Figure 3), yet only the length is scientificallyrelevant.[(Figure_3)TD$FIG]Figure 3 Examples of physics questions with competing dimensions. The indicatedstudent response percentages were collected in pilot studies, with N > 40 in for eachquestion.
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Series EditorBRIAN H. ROSSBeckman I
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Academic Press is an imprint of Els
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viContents3. Science of Multimedia
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xContributorsHenry L. Roediger, III
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xiiPrefaceand there has been much e
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xivPrefaceInterventions for improvi
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2 Henry L. Roediger et al.delayed t
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10 Henry L. Roediger et al.seems so
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14 Henry L. Roediger et al.Table 2
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16 Henry L. Roediger et al.improved
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18 Henry L. Roediger et al.this mat
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22 Henry L. Roediger et al.9. BENEF
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24 Henry L. Roediger et al.subjects
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26 Henry L. Roediger et al.feedback
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28 Henry L. Roediger et al.supporti
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30 Henry L. Roediger et al.of some
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32 Henry L. Roediger et al.Benefit
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34 Henry L. Roediger et al.Hasher,
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36 Henry L. Roediger et al.Son, L.
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38 John Sweller1. INTRODUCTIONCogni
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40 John Sweller‘‘baby-talk.’
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42 John Swellerof cognitive or meta
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44 John SwellerTable 1Natural Infor
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46 John Swellerconfigurations. A ch
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48 John Swellerreproduction results
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50 John Swellerto mutation, without
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52 John Swellerusing a complex or,
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54 John SwellerThe human cognitive
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56 John Swellerepigenetic system ha
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58 John SwellerWe can determine lev
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60 John Swellerthan memorizing the
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62 John SwellerTable 2EffectVariabi
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64 John Swelleroccurs when students
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66 John Sweller3.3.3. The Split-Att
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68 John Swellermerely restates the
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70 John SwellerThe expertise revers
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72 John Swellerobtained a reverse m
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74 John Swelleractivities that othe
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76 John SwellerRenkl, A. (2005). Th
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78 Richard E. Mayercognitive theory
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80 Richard E. Mayerpictures beginni
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82 Richard E. MayerThe dualchannelp
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84 Richard E. Mayerlearner selects
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86 Richard E. MayerRosenthal, Rosno
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88 Richard E. MayerGenerative proce
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90 Richard E. Mayer4.2. Evidence-ba
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92 Richard E. Mayersituation could
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94 Richard E. Mayer(Moreno & Mayer,
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96 Richard E. Mayer4.3.1. Segmentin
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98 Richard E. Mayerpresenting the w
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100 Richard E. MayerThe multimedia
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102 Richard E. Mayergame in industr
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104 Richard E. MayerClark, R. C., &
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106 Richard E. MayerMayer, R. E., &
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108 Richard E. MayerSweller, J. (19
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110 Timothy J. Nokes and Daniel M.
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Incorporating Motivation into a The
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CHAPTERFIVEOn the Interplay of Emot
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Implications for Enhancing Academic
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CHAPTERSIXThere Is Nothing So Pract
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There Is Nothing So Practical as a
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Page 214 and 215: CHAPTERSEVENThe Power of Comparison
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Page 242 and 243: CHAPTEREIGHTThe Ubiquitous Patterns
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IndexAAcademic performancedrive the
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Index 301Correct method comparison,
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Index 303LLabor in vain, 28Language
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Index 305OOntological categories of
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Index 307WWeb-delivered multimedia
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CONTENTS OF RECENT VOLUMESVolume 40
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Contents of Recent Volumes 311Under
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Contents of Recent Volumes 313Volum
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