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Cognitive Load Theory 71have difficulty in processing all the required interacting elements inworking memory and so imagining concepts or procedures may bedifficult or even impossible. More knowledgeable learners may be ableto imagine information more readily because many of the interactingelements are already incorporated into schemas via the environmentalorganizing and linking principle. As a consequence, the effect can bedemonstrated only if levels of expertise are sufficiently high. For novices,studying the information tends to be superior to imagining it becauseimagining all the necessary interacting elements may overload workingmemory.3.3.9. The Transient Information EffectThis effect is a new cognitive load effect. The use of educational technologysometimes has unintended cognitive load consequences. Forexample, a frequent side effect of using technology is that previouslypermanent information that can be repeatedly and easily accessedbecomes transient and can only be reaccessed with difficulty or cannotbe accessed at all. Information is transient if it disappears with the passageof time. Shifting from permanent written text to transitory auditory textor from permanent sets of diagrams to animation provides examples.Auditory information or most animated information disappears as newinformation is presented and so is transitory. If the information beingconveyed is high in element interactivity, presenting it in transient formcan have negative consequences. Having to remember previous, highelement interactivity information that is no longer available and integrateit with currently appearing information can severely overload workingmemory.Evidence for this hypothesis was obtained by Leahy and Sweller (inpress) when testing for the modality effect. They ran two experimentscomparing dual modality with visual only presentations. Primary schoolstudents were taught how to interpret time/temperature graphs showingthe variations in temperature during the day. The first experimentincluded relatively lengthy, complex spoken statements such as ‘‘Find35C on the temperature axis and follow across to a dot’’ while referringto a graph. The second experiment provided exactly the same informationexcept that the statements were divided into smaller segments. Theabove statement, for example, was divided into ‘‘Find 35C on the temperatureaxis’’ and ‘‘Follow across to a dot.’’ The first experiment with thelonger statements demonstrated a reverse modality effect with the visualonly material that included written statements proving superior to theaudiovisual presentation. The second experiment with the shorter statementsindicated a conventional modality effect.The Leahy and Sweller work was not the first to obtain a reversemodality effect. Tabbers, Martens, and van Merri€enboer (2004) also
72 John Swellerobtained a reverse modality effect using relatively lengthy, complex verbalinformation. These results can be explained readily from a cognitive loadtheory perspective. Assume that learners are faced with a relatively complexstatement such as ‘‘Find 35C on the temperature axis and followacross to a dot.’’ Holding this statement in working memory while referringto a graph may overload working memory. If presented in spokenform, the entire statement will need to be held and processed in workingmemory. In contrast, if it is presented in written form, learners can easilydivide and return to the statement in part or in whole whenever they needto. For example, they can quickly scan the entire statement once and thenreturn to the first clause, ‘‘Find 35C on the temperature axis...,’’process that statement with respect to the graph by finding the 35Cpoint, and then return to the statement to process the rest of thestatement ‘‘...and follow across to a dot.’’ If presented in auditory form,learners would need to have memorized the entire statement using theinformation store and environmental organizing and linking principlesin order to engage in a similar activity. Accordingly, a visual text alongwith a visual diagram is superior to an audiovisual presentation.If the statements are presented in shorter form, they are likely to beautomatically held in working memory irrespective of whether they arepresented in spoken or in written form. For shorter statements, theexpansion of working memory due to the use of both auditory and visualchannels should result in the conventional modality effect obtained in alarge number of studies over many years (Ginns, 2005).The transient information effect should apply equally to any transientinformation such as complex, high element interactivity animations.Preliminary results confirm that the length of animations can determinetheir relative effectiveness compared to static graphics.3.4. Summary of element interactivity and the cognitiveload effectsElement interactivity is central to cognitive load theory and the cognitiveload effects. When we must process multiple, interacting elements inworking memory simultaneously, an excessive or inappropriate cognitiveload may be generated. If cognitive load is intrinsic to the informationbeing assimilated as it occurs for the variability and isolated elementseffects, it needs to be altered. Altering intrinsic cognitive load will alterwhat is learned and understood. Intrinsic cognitive load cannot be alteredif what needs to be learned is unaltered and if levels of expertise remain thesame.The vast majority of cognitive load effects are due to a reduction ofextraneous cognitive load. If instructional procedures require learners tounnecessarily process interacting elements because of the manner in
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Series EditorBRIAN H. ROSSBeckman I
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Academic Press is an imprint of Els
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viContents3. Science of Multimedia
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xContributorsHenry L. Roediger, III
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xiiPrefaceand there has been much e
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xivPrefaceInterventions for improvi
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2 Henry L. Roediger et al.delayed t
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10 Henry L. Roediger et al.seems so
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12 Henry L. Roediger et al.interpre
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14 Henry L. Roediger et al.Table 2
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16 Henry L. Roediger et al.improved
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18 Henry L. Roediger et al.this mat
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Page 49 and 50: 34 Henry L. Roediger et al.Hasher,
Page 51 and 52: 36 Henry L. Roediger et al.Son, L.
Page 53 and 54: 38 John Sweller1. INTRODUCTIONCogni
Page 55 and 56: 40 John Sweller‘‘baby-talk.’
Page 57 and 58: 42 John Swellerof cognitive or meta
Page 59 and 60: 44 John SwellerTable 1Natural Infor
Page 61 and 62: 46 John Swellerconfigurations. A ch
Page 63 and 64: 48 John Swellerreproduction results
Page 65 and 66: 50 John Swellerto mutation, without
Page 67 and 68: 52 John Swellerusing a complex or,
Page 69 and 70: 54 John SwellerThe human cognitive
Page 71 and 72: 56 John Swellerepigenetic system ha
Page 73 and 74: 58 John SwellerWe can determine lev
Page 75 and 76: 60 John Swellerthan memorizing the
Page 77 and 78: 62 John SwellerTable 2EffectVariabi
Page 79 and 80: 64 John Swelleroccurs when students
Page 81 and 82: 66 John Sweller3.3.3. The Split-Att
Page 83 and 84: 68 John Swellermerely restates the
Page 85: 70 John SwellerThe expertise revers
Page 89 and 90: 74 John Swelleractivities that othe
Page 91 and 92: 76 John SwellerRenkl, A. (2005). Th
Page 93 and 94: 78 Richard E. Mayercognitive theory
Page 95 and 96: 80 Richard E. Mayerpictures beginni
Page 97 and 98: 82 Richard E. MayerThe dualchannelp
Page 99 and 100: 84 Richard E. Mayerlearner selects
Page 101 and 102: 86 Richard E. MayerRosenthal, Rosno
Page 103 and 104: 88 Richard E. MayerGenerative proce
Page 105 and 106: 90 Richard E. Mayer4.2. Evidence-ba
Page 107 and 108: 92 Richard E. Mayersituation could
Page 109 and 110: 94 Richard E. Mayer(Moreno & Mayer,
Page 111 and 112: 96 Richard E. Mayer4.3.1. Segmentin
Page 113 and 114: 98 Richard E. Mayerpresenting the w
Page 115 and 116: 100 Richard E. MayerThe multimedia
Page 117 and 118: 102 Richard E. Mayergame in industr
Page 119 and 120: 104 Richard E. MayerClark, R. C., &
Page 121 and 122: 106 Richard E. MayerMayer, R. E., &
Page 123 and 124: 108 Richard E. MayerSweller, J. (19
Page 125: 110 Timothy J. Nokes and Daniel M.
Page 128 and 129: Incorporating Motivation into a The
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Incorporating Motivation into a The
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CHAPTERFIVEOn the Interplay of Emot
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Implications for Enhancing Academic
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CHAPTERSIXThere Is Nothing So Pract
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There Is Nothing So Practical as a
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CHAPTERSEVENThe Power of Comparison
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The Power of Comparison in Learning
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CHAPTEREIGHTThe Ubiquitous Patterns
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The Ubiquitous Patterns of Incorrec
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CHAPTERNINEConceptual Problem Solvi
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Conceptual Problem Solving in Physi
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IndexAAcademic performancedrive the
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Index 301Correct method comparison,
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Index 303LLabor in vain, 28Language
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Index 305OOntological categories of
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Index 307WWeb-delivered multimedia
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CONTENTS OF RECENT VOLUMESVolume 40
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Contents of Recent Volumes 311Under
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Contents of Recent Volumes 313Volum
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