Duane W. Roller

and returns to Rome. Antagonism between Antonius and Octavian intensifi
es. Antonius abandons campaigning for the year with no signifi cant
accomplishments.
34 b.c.: Parthian campaign is renewed once again but is limited to capturing the
disloyal king of Armenia. Cleopatra and Antonius celebrate Parthian triumph
in Alexandria and hold the ceremony known as Donations of Alexandria, codifying
territorial adjustments and making their children rulers of various areas.
Th is is met with general outrage in Rome, exploited by Octavian.
33 b.c.: Intense propaganda war develops between the two triumvirs. Triumvirate
expires at end of year and is not renewed.
32 b.c.: Senators and consuls loyal to Antonius leave Rome and join him in East
(February). Cleopatra and Antonius move to Ephesos and begin to constitute
their forces, then move on to Samos and Athens, where she is honored by the
city. Octavian seizes Antonius’s will and, aft er a selective reading, declares war
on Cleopatra. Th e couple summons the support of 11 allied kings. Cleopatra
persuades Antonius not to attack Octavian in Italy, and the couple goes into
winter quarters in Patrai.
31 b.c.: Cleopatra and Antonius move to vicinity of Actium to block any movement
by Octavian toward Egypt. Forces engage on 2 September; Cleopatra
withdraws fl eet during battle. Antonius attempts unsuccessfully to gain support
in Cyrene; Cleopatra returns to Egypt and prepares to hand over kingdom to
Caesarion and fl ee into exile, but is thwarted by Malchos. Octavian moves to
Rhodes, and negotiations begin, lasting into 30 b.c.
30 b.c.: With negotiations going nowhere, Octavian invades Egypt. Aft er
a number of military defeats and defections, Cleopatra tricks Antonius into
suicide, and then kills herself (10 August). Caesarion becomes king, but in
theory only, and he is promptly killed. Th e Ptolemaic kingdom comes to an end,
and Egypt becomes a Roman province (29 August, backdated to 1 August).
Appendix 1 161