Hypsipyla Shoot Borers of Meliaceae in Sri Lanka - Australian ...

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occupied by broadleaf species, of which 97% was under Eucalyptus spp. (Table 2). In 1995, the total plantation area was expanding at a rate of approximately 21 000 ha/year, with the greatest increase being in hardwood species. A number of programs initiated by the Commonwealth Government (National Afforestation Program, Farm Forestry Program, Community Rainforest Reforestation Program) supported the expansion of Australia’s plantation resource base. Table 2. Area of forestry plantations in Australia classified by tree species and land ownership (ABARE 1996b). Tree species Plantation area in March 1995 (ha) Economic Importance of Native Swietenioideae Species Area planted for year ending March 1995 (ha) Coniferous Pinus radiata D. Don 725 731 8 606 Pinus elliottii Englem. 69 170 0 Pinus pinaster Bess. 30 853 540 Pinus caribaea Morelet 57 539 0 Other exotic species 33 880 235 Total exotic 917 173 12 348 Araucaria spp. 46 700 601 Total coniferous 963 873 12 949 Broadleaved Eucalyptus spp. 150 703 1 184 Populus spp. 1 048 0 Other 3 199 32 Total broadleaved 154 950 11 216 Total 1 118 823 20 597 Public ownership 759 332 13 833 Private ownership 359 491 13 034 Four species of Swietenioideae (a subfamily of Meliaceae) are native to Australia; Toona ciliata M. Roem., Xylocarpus granatum Koen, X. moluccensis (Lam.) M. Roem., and X. rumphii (Kostel.) Mabb., of which only T. ciliata is commercially harvested. Toona ciliata has been an important tree in the history of the Australian timber industry. Harvesting of this species commenced along the Hawkesbury River, New South Wales, in 1792, shortly after European settlement (Baur 1962). The search for new stands of T. ciliata led to the exploration and eventual settlement of much of the Queensland and New South Wales coastline. Extensive logging and land clearing resulted in the virtual disappearance of T. ciliata from many regions (Grant 1989; Newport 1904; Volck 1971) which led to a dramatic reduction in the quantity of timber harvested. In 1878, 2797 m 3 42 of timber was harvested from the rainforests of north Queensland alone (Vader 19887), while in 1995 less than 200 m 3 was harvested from the entire State (Table 3). Similarly, harvesting of T. ciliata in New South Wales declined from an average of 1585 m 3 / year in 1910–1917, to 570 m 3 /year in the 1940s (Grant 1989) and ultimately to less than 100 m 3 /year in the 1990s (A. Signor, State Forests of New South Wales (SFNSW), pers. comm.; R. Ainley, New South Wales Forest Products Association (NSWFPA), pers. comm.). The harvesting of T. ciliata from publicly owned lands effectively ceased in 1982 in New South Wales and 1994 in Queensland. Most logs of T. ciliata now come from windfalls and power line clearing, with a very small quantity from plantation harvesting. Table 3. Removal of Toona ciliata from public and private lands in Queensland since 1991. Compiled from QDPI – Forestry, Production Division Statistics. Year Public land (ha) Private land (ha) Total (ha) 1991 41 63 104 1992 135 120 255 1993 393 41 434 1994 138 171 309 1995 5 194 199 Small quantities of timber are harvested from privately-owned lands. Much of this timber is cut for specific users and does not come onto the open market. Almost 200 m 3 of timber was removed for sale from private lands in Queensland during 1995 (Table 3) while about 20m 3 was harvested in New South Wales (R. Ainley, NSWFPA, pers. comm.). In addition, logs confiscated from illegal logging on private property, forestry reserves, or national parks are sold when seized. The value of T. ciliata is difficult to gauge due to its rarity on the market. Recent estimates put the value between $500 and $1000/m 3 for logs, and up to $3000/m 3 for sawn timber (G. Palmer, QDPI – Forestry, pers. comm.; R Ainley, NSWFPA, pers. comm.). Thus, T. ciliata is currently one of the most valuable timbers in Australia, comparable only to white beech Gmelina leichhardtii (F Muell.) F. Muell. ex Benth (Verbenaceae). Success of Exotic Species of Swietenioideae Planted in Australia A wide variety of introduced species of Swietenioideae have been trialed in Queensland and New South Wales (Table 4). Despite recognition of the potential
of these species, plantings have been experimental and small scale (details in Tables 5, 6, 7). At present only 16.2 ha in Queensland are planted with introduced species of Swietenioideae, of which 14.3 ha are planted with Cedrela odorata L. (Source: QDPI Forestry, Plantation Register, Hunted Compartments Report July 1996). Many of the introduced Swietenioideae species were damaged by H. robusta (Table 4). Swietenia macrophylla King has been consistently and heavily damaged, C. odorata, C. lilloi C. DC. and Chukrasia tabularis A. Juss. were less damaged, while Khaya senegalensis (Desv.) A. Juss. and K. nyasica Stapf. ex Baker received very minor damage. Damage invariably commenced within five years of planting, but was not always systematically recorded. The absence of recorded damage cannot, therefore, be assumed to indicate low damage levels. Greater damage has been reported on T. ciliata than on S. macrophylla, C. odorata, C. lilloi, and C. tabularis when grown in mixed species plantings or growing nearby. Many species of Meliaceae, especially those in the genera Swietenia and Khaya, tend to develop multiple leaders and heavy branching. Although damage from H. robusta contributes to this, poor form has also been attributed to wind, frost, poor soils and damage from browsing animals. In particular, many species are susceptible to frost, leading to the failure of many plantings in southern areas and 43 at higher altitudes. Trees do not readily shed lateral branches in plantation situations, so pruning is required to improve form. Even heavy and frequent pruning has failed to produce reasonable log lengths in many plantings. There have been many small trial plantings of exotic species of Meliaceae with mixed success, some of which are very promising. Exotic species of Meliaceae have been divided into three categories; species that have been grown with some success (Table 5), species that have not been adequately assessed (Table 6), and, species that have been trialed and abandoned due to poor performance (Table 7). Trials for species in each category are summarised in the following sections. Species grown with some success (Table 5) Cedrela odorata Cedrela odorata is capable of very rapid early growth in open plantings on good sites, achieving mean annual increment (MAI) of height generally above 1.0 m over 8 years and up to 4.0 m during the first few years. The early growth of open planted trees has been further improved with the use of protective shelters (Growtubes TM ). After one year, trees attained a mean height of 1.7 m in 1 m Growtubes, and 2.3 m in 2 m Growtubes compared to 1.5 m without Growtubes) (Applegate and Bragg 1989). Open plantings on heavy red soils or in drier Table 4. Exotic species of Meliaceae subfamily Swietenioideae planted in Australia. Source: Queensland: QDPI Forestry, Plantation Register, Hunted Compartments Report July 1996 (current areas); New South Wales: Wyatt 1984 – (areas at time of planting – 1952–1958). Tree species Current area of planting a (ha) Current rate of planting (ha/year) Optimal rotation length (yrs) Status 1 Hypsipyla damage Cedrela lilloi C. DC. 0.3 Nil C Slight C. microcarpa C. DC. Negligible Nil D None recorded C. odorata L. 14.4 Negligible B Slight/variable Chukrasia tabularis A. Juss. Negligible Nil C Moderate/variable Khaya anthotheca (Welw.) C. DC. 0.1 Nil D None recorded K. grandifoliola C. DC. Negligible Nil B None recorded K. ivorensis A. Chev. Negligible Nil C None recorded K. nyasica Stapf. ex Baker 1.1 Negligible ~30 B Slight K. senegalensis (Desv.) A. Juss. 0.3 Nil B Slight Entandrophragma utile (Dawe & Sprague) Sprague 0.1 Nil D None recorded Swietenia macrophylla King 0.2 Negligible B Moderate S. mahagoni (L.) Jacq. 0.1 Nil C None recorded S. macrophylla × mahagoni Negligible Nil D None recorded 1 A – ongoing and successful; B – ongoing but having limited or variable success; C – preliminary or experimental only; D – terminated.
Page 1 and 2: Hypsipyla Shoot Borers of Meliaceae
Page 3 and 4: Mayhew and Newton (1998) have revie
Page 7 and 8: Table 1. Summary of current and pas
Page 9 and 10: 26° 21° WEST BENGAL (INDIA) PACHA
Page 11 and 12: The only harvesting of Swietenioide
Page 15 and 16: H. robusta. From that time onwards,
Page 17 and 18: successful and is expected to have
Page 19 and 20: them are species of the subfamily S
Page 21 and 22: T. ciliata grows in dry deciduous f
Page 23 and 24: Table 1. Area of forestry plantatio
Page 25 and 26: S. macrophylla and Swietenia mahago
Page 27 and 28: plantings of S. macrophylla, K. sen
Page 33 and 34: Table 1. Major plantation areas and
Page 37 and 38: mixing seedlings of S. macrophylla,
Page 39: Hypsipyla Shoot Borers of Meliaceae
Page 43 and 44: 45 Table 5. Continued. Description
Page 45 and 46: 47 Table 6. Description of on-going
Page 47 and 48: locations were generally poorer, wi
Page 51 and 52: growth response and resultant form
Page 53 and 54: Mr David Spolc (University of Queen
Page 55 and 56: Haley, C. 1954. Forestry in Tropica
Page 57 and 58: Gross Domestic Product, a contribut
Page 59 and 60: A number of parasitoids have been b
Page 61 and 62: A Review of Hypsipyla grandella Zel

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