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1 Who are the Bidayuh? 2 Language development before 1963 3 Language development after 1963 PART I Language Development in Bidayuh: Past, Present and Future Jonas Noeb Robert Sulis Ridu 4 Recent efforts to develop the Bidayuh language 5 The Bidayuh Language Development Project 6 Dreams for the future 7 Concluding remarks 8 Addendum — Events since 2005 List of figures and tables: Figure 1. Inset: A map of Southeast Asia, showing Malaysia and some neighboring countries. Figure 2. Above: The relative populations of Dayak, Chinese and Malay in Sarawak in 1960. Below: The relative numbers of Dayak, Chinese and Malay in school in 1940, 1950 and 1960. Table 1. Some Bidayuh-language textbooks developed by missionaries Table 2. Bidayuh books published by the Borneo Literature Bureau. Table 3. Current and unified symbolizations for Bidayuh vowels 1
1 Who are the Bidayuh? The non-Muslim indigenous peoples of Sarawak are collectively known as Dayak, comprising the Iban, the Bidayuh and various other ethnic groups collectively known as the Orang Ulu, each having its own language. As with the other Dayak groups, the language of the Bidayuh belongs to the Austronesian family. The Bidayuh people are, however, notable for the great variety of dialects that they speak. The Bidayuh belt spans the districts of the Kuching Division (covering Lundu, Bau and Kuching Districts) and the Serian District in the Samarahan Division, in the western end of Sarawak (see Figure 1). These administrative districts roughly correspond to the major dialect divisions among the Bidayuh. The dialects in the Serian, Kuching and Bau districts are all considered to be in the “Bidayuhic” family of languages. In general, they are mutually intelligible within the districts but not between districts. The dialects found in the Lundu district are more distantly related; in fact, Salako actually belongs to a different family of languages, Malayic. How did the speakers of these diverse tongues all come to be considered as part of the Bidayuh people? 1.1 The origins and character of the Bidayuh According to early Western writers, the Bidayuh are believed to be among the earliest inhabitants of Borneo (Low [1848] 1990:275, Shelford [1916] 1985:306, Staal 1940:55, MacDonald 1956 [1985]:50). However, their place of origin before they came to Borneo is lost in the mists of prehistory (Noeb 1992). The Bidayuh have a story that, in ancient times, they were living in the coastal areas of Western Borneo (Drake-Brockman 1959). Some of them moved further and further inland in order to avoid being taken as slaves, preyed upon by pirates, harassed by lackeys of the Sultan of Brunei (the overlord of Sarawak before the Brooke raj), hunted by headhunters and cheated through the unfair trading system of forced trade. Nevertheless, they had to continually contend with these hardships until the Brookes came. In view of this traumatic past, it is not surprising that early Western writers saw the Bidayuh as shy, timid or ignorant. For example, Ling Roth considered them “too far oppressed … to recover their manliness and independence, so to succeed and multiply”, and was uncertain whether they would survive many more generations ([1896] 1980, V. 1, p. xx). More sympathetically, the Bidayuh have been characterized as humble, conservative, hospitable, modest, polite and respectfully unassertive (Staal 1940). Having said that, there is evidence that the helplessness and timidity of the Bidayuhs was overstated. According to J. H. Walker (2002:14), the Bidayuh were prominent in the rebellion against Brunei rule in the 1830s, and Brooke experienced difficulties in establishing his control over some Bidayuh. 2
Page 1 and 2: DigitalResources SIL eBook 33 ® Th
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Page 5 and 6: 5.3.2 A unified Bidayuh orthography
Page 7 and 8: 6.5.1 Developments from medial clus
Page 9 and 10: 5.1.1 Onset of the ultima 5.1.2 Nuc
Page 11 and 12: Foreword Y. B. Datuk Michael Manyin
Page 13 and 14: Introduction to Part I Today more a
Page 15 and 16: xiv The Bidayuh Language: Yesterday
Page 17: xiv The Bidayuh Language: Yesterday
Page 21 and 22: 1.1.1 By location Before the coming
Page 23 and 24: 2 Language development before 1963
Page 25 and 26: the Bidayuh belt make use of the re
Page 27 and 28: mile of the Kuching-Serian road. Al
Page 29 and 30: 3 Language development after 1963 M
Page 31 and 32: However, when the Dewan Bahasa dan
Page 33 and 34: 3.5 Majlis Adat Istiadat Sarawak Th
Page 35 and 36: 4 Recent efforts to develop the Bid
Page 37 and 38: 5 The Bidayuh Language Development
Page 39 and 40: Table 3. Current and unified symbol
Page 41 and 42: � It would be a source for lingui
Page 43 and 44: eing of the Bidayuh language but al
Page 45 and 46: 8 Addendum — Events since 2005 Th
Page 47 and 48: 8.6 Wordlist project This is a cont
Page 49 and 50: 1 Introduction The intent of this p
Page 51 and 52: nasal(ized) sounds. There are some
Page 53 and 54: Vowels of the ultima (tonic syllabl
Page 55 and 56: 3.2.4 There are two laryngeal phone
Page 57 and 58: Curly brackets: {bi-} in /bi-suwat/
Page 59 and 60: Thus, [ã], [ũ], [ỹ], [h̃]; [V
Page 61 and 62: Examples of nasally-released word-f
Page 63 and 64: 4 Canonical shapes of Bidayuh words
Page 65 and 66: Examples of ambisyllabic V 1.V 2 se
Page 67 and 68: different meaning from the form wit
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saktian/ ‘a supernatural power th
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Still another example of phonetic v
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—or possibly /r/ is the remnant o
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Possibly words like /uatki/ > [ʔwa
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5 Nasal spread 35 Movements of the
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piŋayuh/ > [pi.ŋã.ỹũh̃] ‘c
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təŋən/ > [tɤ.ŋɤ̃n] ‘tree (
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Reverse spread is more likely to oc
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words affected by this weakening pr
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5.5 Outcomes of nasal+obstruent clu
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6 ‘New’ nasality As may be conc
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obstruent has dropped out in partic
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clusters (…VN.DV…). However, Bu
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Examples of the reported increase i
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nasal spread—i.e., it occurs in w
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The following examples illustrate n
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saNɡaap/ > *sə̃.ŋ(ɡ)a.ˈap > [
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with instances of non-spread. Such
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A vowel between two simple/single n
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6.7.2 Environments that hinder or p
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7 Nasals in Bidayuh morphology What
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7.2 Elements of Bidayuh morphology
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tānək/ ‘cook (it)! (imperative)
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ut also the grammatical content of
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ɡāyas/ > [ɡā.yəs] ‘scratch!
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install’ (Biatah-Nais). /pĭjo(ː
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Examples of Bukar and Sadung roots
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complex than, for example, a vowel-
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) /m-/ is another single-consonant
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im-/ occur most commonly with /k/-i
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udip/ 103 ‘alive, living, fresh;
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knowledge, there is only one third-
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third order. 109 Consonant-initial
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It is not absolutely clear whether
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or the single-consonant prefix /m-/
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Table 3. Distribution of six common
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Table 4. Estimated level of product
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) Canonical type of the first sound
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8 Closing remarks This paper provid
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1 Overview It has long been recogni
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For those who would like to relate
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3. In most dialects there is (or ma
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lengthening of the following conson
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*t *k Additional examples: *ŋum-p
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*m *n *ɲ *ŭməh, *ăməh ‘(padd
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*y *s Sembaan kăwin, Tringgus Raya
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*dĭ-ken, *dĭ-ɡen ‘hold in hand
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shape in Malay words and (2) the ma
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*e *o *a Biya tājə, Sembaan tāj
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Sembaan. In general, in Sembaan the
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*mideːk, *mŭdeːk ‘go upriver
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Three more sets seem to provide evi
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Also *kĭlet, *kĭlat ‘eyelashes,
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*kăʔih, *kiʔeh ‘we (exclusive)
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Pinyawa’ dəwən, Bengoh dəwən,
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Tringgus Raya trən, Tringgus Biren
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*ɲəhəp ‘suck’ > Singai ɲuop
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*m *n *ŋ *l *r *bāʔak tuad Bukar
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speakers, Pinyawa’ and Bengoh whe
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*ăndu ‘day’ Singai əndu, Gumb
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*kăwi, *kăwin ‘shoulder, clavic
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Key to dialect numbers: Western Cen
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Table 5. Distribution of Replacive
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*jāmban (74) əʔ əʔ *tăŋan (1
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Table 7. Distribution of Replacive
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*t *k Bibengih mpuruh, Sangking mpu
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Anah Rais ɲiʔit, Biya ɲīʔit, S
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*jăran, *ăran ‘trail, footpath
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Table 8. Proto-Bidayuh penult vowel
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*ătək, *ə̆ntək ‘brain’ Sin
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*siməhəŋ, *simăhoŋ ‘ten’ S
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mə̆kəd, Tringgus Bireng məkəd,
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*săʔə, *siʔə ‘kill’ Grogo
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də̆ŋan, Tringgus Bireng dĭŋeː
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*ɲinsap ‘suck’ hisap *sinsin
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*t *k *b *ɡ *r *s Anah Rais prĭʔ
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Tringgus Raya kāsah, Tebakang kir
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2.6.1 Consonants Proto Bidayuh had
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Singai Sin Bratak 78.8 Bra Table 9.
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Proto Land Dayak Bidayuh Bakati Bak
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*t *k *b *d *j *ɡ *m *n *ɲ *ŋ *l
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*[d]iu 1ʔ ‘true’ Rara diyuʔ,
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correspondences for the vowel *a ar
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*ara 1d ‘wing’ Rara arat, Sara/
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There is a small group of words tha
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*j *ɡ *m *n *ɲ *ŋ *l *r *s *jaŋ
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3.2.3 Coda of the penult Only nasal
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4 Proto Bidayuh-Bakati’ The Biday
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For the present we will posit PBB *
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*mbeen ‘wash (hands)’ PBid *ŋu
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*sVbərək ‘hungry’ PBid *sibə
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chart: The usual correspondences fo
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*ɡăɡah ‘strong (person)’ PBi
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However, other alternations include
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*năŋko ‘steal’ PBid *năŋku,
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If the following Bidayuh and Bakati
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**k ** ĭkan ‘fish’ Proto Biday
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It seems probable that only **r is
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**s **kăsuh ‘dog’ Proto Bidayu
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These Southern Land Dayak forms see
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**kămbət, **k-ar-ĭmbət, **k-an-
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position usually occur before voice
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e reconstructed for these sets or e
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As can be observed from the precedi
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Even in Proto Bidayuh in a high pro
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5.1.2.5 Vocalic length The data fro
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**tərəp, **t/dărəm ‘deep’ P
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**ăpuy, **ăpi ‘fire’ Proto Bi
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**p **piʔin, **paʔin ‘water’
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**m-i/ŭ/ādip ‘alive’ Proto Bi
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**ŭduh, **iduh ‘grass’ Proto B
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**ŭ ̆̆ ̆ **ŭjan ‘rain’ Pr
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Examples of sə, bə and po are fou
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It is possible that Proto Land Daya
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6 Roots of the Land Dayak languages
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PPhil *ləpád, PLD *măbər, *mibi
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PAN *l > *r PAN *limáH > PLD *rim
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PLD laryngeals. Since the developme
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PHF *besúR ‘full, sated > PLD *b
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PHN *suŋay > PLD *sūŋi ‘river
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Bengoh taːs, Anah Rais taːs, Biya
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PHN (Z) *ubú[qʔ] ‘short’ (296
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PAN *kálih ‘dig (out)’ > PBB *
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*măriʔ, *pāriʔ ‘go back, retu
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A. Table 19. Distribution of Sound
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3. The contrast between full and re
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**kăjaʔ ‘leg’ Proto Bidayuh *
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**ridiʔ, **radiʔ ‘thin’ Proto
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Another change (Group F) has affect
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**tăkiʔ ‘excrement’ Proto Bid
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7 A final word In these pages we ha
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Serasot batuh, Grogo batuh, Stass b
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Proto Bakati’ *ampun ‘cloud’
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Proto Bakati’ *sawa 1ʔ ‘year
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təŋən (kəyuh), təŋəy, Bratak
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PHN *balat ‘banana species’ (co
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manuk (ʔ is the more common reflex
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Bukar-Sadong siok [siyɔk], Bunan s
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Rara kampawaʔ ‘spider’. Ribun-
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mbak, Biatah ubak, Bistaang baːk,
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Tebakang pămpi, Bukar-Sadong pămp
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Proto Land Dayak **isuk Proto Biday
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Proto Bidayuh *pŭduh, *pudun ‘ga
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unclear whether these forms reflect
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Proto Bakati’ *ŋayo 2 ‘scratch
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Proto Bakati’ *[m]uɲu 1ŋ ‘sit
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Biatah aran, Bistaang ran, Benuk (a
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Proto Bidayuh *jătuːʔ ‘fall’
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PMP *Ra-[n]+dut ‘pull out’ Prot
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Proto Bidayuh *ku/ŋi/ni-suː̼ ̼
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mamuh, Biatah māmuh, Bistaang mām
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Proto Bakati’ *ɡulu 1k ‘laugh
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PMP *uDahik ‘go upstream’ Proto
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Rais dăyəh, Tringgus Bireng dăy
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Serambu sipot, Bratak sipot, Seraso
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Bibengih pădi, Sangking isih pădi
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sănduk, Bibengih sănduk, Sangking
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Serasot ɲuop, Grogo ɲuop, Stass
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PAN (D) *musipa ‘chew betel’, P
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Proto Land Dayak **dāyuŋ Proto Bi
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Tringgus Raya mīrih, Tringgus Bire
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Proto Bidayuh *ănjan ‘ladder’
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dukoh, Ribun-A duku a h, Semandang
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Proto Bakati’ *saribu 1 ‘one th
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Proto Bakati’ *aŋho 2 ‘long’
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Proto Bakati’ *sunu 1 ‘dull’
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Proto Land Dayak **insək, **in[s]i
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Tringgus Raya ɲama, Tringgus Biren
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kudu, Biatah kudu, Bistaang kădu,
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PAN *kamí Proto Bidayuh-Bakati’
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məndam, Biatah birăndam, Sapug m
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Proto Bakati’ *ka sada 1n ‘insi
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Proto Bidayuh-Bakati’ *bădaʔ Pr
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*băɡəːʔ many (things) (299) *b
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*jan, *ăjan, *ijan, *ŭjan, *jen,
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*mūsiŋ, *pūsiŋ, *pūsin, *mūsi
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*sădeʔ, *sĭdeʔ, *sudiʔ, *sŭde
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B.2 Proto Bakati’ *aba 1k head (7
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*ŋ/ɲito 1ŋ count (294) *ŋoo 1t
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*pVriok cooking pot (223) *pV̆teː
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**nāŋ-kap, **nāŋ-kəp, **da-kup
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**tubəh 1, **tə̆bəh tuba plant
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chew betel 244 chicken 56 child 255
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kill 201, 129 kingfisher 52 kiss 11
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soot 226 soul 236, 181 sound 181 so
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1 Introduction PART IV A Classifica
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Gunam: Dayak Ribun (Parindu, Sangga
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c) Denasalization of final nasals.
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3 Sub-grouping of the varieties of
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Sub-group IV, Moro Betung and Saham
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*bănaʔ ‘wind’ Tanap bonoʔ, S
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*tājə ‘dull’ Bidayuh *tājə,
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It is this third lexical pattern th
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*Vnto ‘this’ Semirau ənto, Tan
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A. Satu Kome Semirau Tanggung Upe k
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Leminang ntoh N. Mongkok nto Selamp
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Kembayan (A) Empodis kohosiyak tahi
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*…uk *manuk (47) *tutuk (81) *ruk
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Semirau nokᵑ dayukᵑ Tanggung no
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In open syllables and before the ve
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Ribun (A) ntileʸʔ ŋombeʸʔ Guna
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Semirau jotuk oko omo Tanggung jotu
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N. Mongkok botuh omuh abuʰ Selampo
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*baik ‘good’ Tanap baek, Semong
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6 Sound changes that have impacted
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*piʔin, *paʔin ‘water’ Ambawa
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*m-ədəp ‘alive, green’ Tanap
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*jĭraɁ ‘tongue’ Tanap jiroɁ,
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Appendix IV—Cognate sets *dărəd
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*săwaʔ ‘year’ Bidayuh *săwa
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Ntoloʔ, Engkahan Ntuloʔ, Selampon
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Ribun (Hudson) motuh, Gunam motuh,
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*niŋaʔ ‘look, watch’ Bidayuh
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Engkahan bənalik, Tanap baliaʔ, S
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*tikam ‘throw’ Ribun nikam, Nan
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Leminang nampar, Nangka Mongkok tam
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Bidayuh *sāma:ʔ, Mandong maʔ, Ba
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Nangka Mongkok limaʔ, Selampong li
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*tumpul ‘dull’ Ambawang Satu tu
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*m-udup Nanga Rakan mudup, Lubuk Ta
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may be related to the immediately p
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*timul ‘float’ Mandong timul, B
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References Adat Bidayuh 1994, Saraw
Page 515 and 516:
Hickling, Hugh. 1959. Sarawak and I
Page 517:
Shelford, Robert W. (1916) 1985. A
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