The Bidayuh Language Yesterday, Today and ... - SIL International

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Figure 1. Inset: A map of Southeast Asia, showing Malaysia and some neighboring countries. Note the small boxes showing the location of the Malaysian state of Sarawak, and the westernmost end of Sarawak. Main map: The western end of Sarawak, showing the Kuching Division (with the Lundu, Bau and Kuching Districts) and the Samarahan Division (which contains the Serian District). The colored areas show the locations for the major dialect groupings recognised by the Bidayuh. 1.2 Classifications of the Bidayuh, past and present 3
1.1.1 By location Before the coming in 1841 of Sir James Brooke, the first White Rajah of Sarawak, the focus of the Daya’ in the then Sarawak Proper was where a person came from. Daya’ is a Bidayuh word for person or human. Thus, Daya’ Bijagoi means ‘people of Jagoi’ (Jagoi being the name of a mountain in the Bau District), Daya’ Bibukar means ‘people of Bukar’ (the name Bukar derives from the word for river mud—this refers to a river in the Serian district), and so on. 1 This is the usual mechanism that has given rise to the various dialect names of the Bidayuh. After the arrival of the Brookes, this method of classification was observed and recorded by some Western writers. For example, Reijffert (1956:50–51) notes that Land Dayaks on the Samarahan River and its tributaries are the Bisopug, Pinyawah (Serin tributary) and Bibukar (Bukar tributary). Those groups whose villages on the southern branch of the Sarawak River are the Biparuch, Bibanuk, Sikog, Biotah, Bikuab, Bibonguh, Brang, Bionah, Pidiah and Biman (Sumban). Some of the groups Reijffert listed for the western branch of Sarawak River are the Seringos (Tringgus), Bigumang, Biratak, Bijaguĕ, Bisingai and Sikaruch Birais. (The spelling is Reijffert’s; these observations were actually made in 1889 or so.) The sub-ethnic groups in the Sadung are the Taup, Temong, Riih, Semabang, Ankaru, Sumpas, Mentu and Sambat (Roberts 1949). 1.1.2 By cultural characteristics—as Land Dayaks During the Brooke and colonial periods (1841–1963) the generic term Land Dayak was used to refer to those groups of daya’ in the western end of Sarawak who shared similar cultural characteristics. In the Lundu District, the Rara (often called Lara) and Salako (often called Selakau) were also grouped as Land Dayaks (though the language of the Salako is Malayic). The various branches of Land Dayaks were originally of one stock, but then they drifted apart, with different customs and different dialects (Elam 1937). Conversely, although in the past all these various branches of Bidayuhs lived as separate communities, today they all identify themselves as belonging to a common ethnic group. One unique characteristic of the various Bidayuh groups in the early days was their traditional icon, the round community house (called the baruk, balŭ or panggah, depending on the dialect) where visitors and village bachelors slept, big ritualistic ceremonies were held, and important matters were settled. Early Western writers called the baruk the “head house” because the skulls of chieftains and warriors taken during the headhunting days were kept in the community house as they were also considered “guests” of the community. Today, not many villages still have the baruk. One has been built for display in the cultural village at Santubong. However, there is also an authentic and quite well-known baruk at Kampung Opar, in the Bau District, still serving its original purpose in the community. It is worth noting that in 1912 Hose classified the Land Dayak as Klemantan. This term also included Seping, Tanjong, Kanowit, Bekatan, Lugat, Melanau, Narum, Miri, the Berawan subgroup, the Baram subgroup and Maloh (Leach 1950:49). The classification was based on the characteristic of the Klemantans that 1 For a discussion of some of the grammatical functions of the bi- affix, see C. M. Rensch, sec. 7.4.2, this volume. 4
Page 1 and 2: DigitalResources SIL eBook 33 ® Th
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Page 5 and 6: 5.3.2 A unified Bidayuh orthography
Page 7 and 8: 6.5.1 Developments from medial clus
Page 9 and 10: 5.1.1 Onset of the ultima 5.1.2 Nuc
Page 11 and 12: Foreword Y. B. Datuk Michael Manyin
Page 13 and 14: Introduction to Part I Today more a
Page 15 and 16: xiv The Bidayuh Language: Yesterday
Page 17 and 18: xiv The Bidayuh Language: Yesterday
Page 19: 1 Who are the Bidayuh? The non-Musl
Page 23 and 24: 2 Language development before 1963
Page 25 and 26: the Bidayuh belt make use of the re
Page 27 and 28: mile of the Kuching-Serian road. Al
Page 29 and 30: 3 Language development after 1963 M
Page 31 and 32: However, when the Dewan Bahasa dan
Page 33 and 34: 3.5 Majlis Adat Istiadat Sarawak Th
Page 35 and 36: 4 Recent efforts to develop the Bid
Page 37 and 38: 5 The Bidayuh Language Development
Page 39 and 40: Table 3. Current and unified symbol
Page 41 and 42: � It would be a source for lingui
Page 43 and 44: eing of the Bidayuh language but al
Page 45 and 46: 8 Addendum — Events since 2005 Th
Page 47 and 48: 8.6 Wordlist project This is a cont
Page 49 and 50: 1 Introduction The intent of this p
Page 51 and 52: nasal(ized) sounds. There are some
Page 53 and 54: Vowels of the ultima (tonic syllabl
Page 55 and 56: 3.2.4 There are two laryngeal phone
Page 57 and 58: Curly brackets: {bi-} in /bi-suwat/
Page 59 and 60: Thus, [ã], [ũ], [ỹ], [h̃]; [V
Page 61 and 62: Examples of nasally-released word-f
Page 63 and 64: 4 Canonical shapes of Bidayuh words
Page 65 and 66: Examples of ambisyllabic V 1.V 2 se
Page 67 and 68: different meaning from the form wit
Page 69 and 70: saktian/ ‘a supernatural power th
Page 71 and 72:
Still another example of phonetic v
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—or possibly /r/ is the remnant o
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Possibly words like /uatki/ > [ʔwa
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5 Nasal spread 35 Movements of the
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piŋayuh/ > [pi.ŋã.ỹũh̃] ‘c
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təŋən/ > [tɤ.ŋɤ̃n] ‘tree (
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Reverse spread is more likely to oc
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words affected by this weakening pr
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5.5 Outcomes of nasal+obstruent clu
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6 ‘New’ nasality As may be conc
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obstruent has dropped out in partic
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clusters (…VN.DV…). However, Bu
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Examples of the reported increase i
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nasal spread—i.e., it occurs in w
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The following examples illustrate n
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saNɡaap/ > *sə̃.ŋ(ɡ)a.ˈap > [
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with instances of non-spread. Such
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A vowel between two simple/single n
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6.7.2 Environments that hinder or p
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7 Nasals in Bidayuh morphology What
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7.2 Elements of Bidayuh morphology
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tānək/ ‘cook (it)! (imperative)
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ut also the grammatical content of
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ɡāyas/ > [ɡā.yəs] ‘scratch!
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install’ (Biatah-Nais). /pĭjo(ː
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Examples of Bukar and Sadung roots
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complex than, for example, a vowel-
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) /m-/ is another single-consonant
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im-/ occur most commonly with /k/-i
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udip/ 103 ‘alive, living, fresh;
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knowledge, there is only one third-
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third order. 109 Consonant-initial
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It is not absolutely clear whether
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or the single-consonant prefix /m-/
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Table 3. Distribution of six common
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Table 4. Estimated level of product
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) Canonical type of the first sound
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8 Closing remarks This paper provid
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1 Overview It has long been recogni
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For those who would like to relate
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3. In most dialects there is (or ma
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lengthening of the following conson
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*t *k Additional examples: *ŋum-p
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*m *n *ɲ *ŭməh, *ăməh ‘(padd
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*y *s Sembaan kăwin, Tringgus Raya
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*dĭ-ken, *dĭ-ɡen ‘hold in hand
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shape in Malay words and (2) the ma
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*e *o *a Biya tājə, Sembaan tāj
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Sembaan. In general, in Sembaan the
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*mideːk, *mŭdeːk ‘go upriver
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Three more sets seem to provide evi
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Also *kĭlet, *kĭlat ‘eyelashes,
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*kăʔih, *kiʔeh ‘we (exclusive)
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Pinyawa’ dəwən, Bengoh dəwən,
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Tringgus Raya trən, Tringgus Biren
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*ɲəhəp ‘suck’ > Singai ɲuop
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*m *n *ŋ *l *r *bāʔak tuad Bukar
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speakers, Pinyawa’ and Bengoh whe
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*ăndu ‘day’ Singai əndu, Gumb
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*kăwi, *kăwin ‘shoulder, clavic
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Key to dialect numbers: Western Cen
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Table 5. Distribution of Replacive
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*jāmban (74) əʔ əʔ *tăŋan (1
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Table 7. Distribution of Replacive
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*t *k Bibengih mpuruh, Sangking mpu
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Anah Rais ɲiʔit, Biya ɲīʔit, S
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*jăran, *ăran ‘trail, footpath
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Table 8. Proto-Bidayuh penult vowel
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*ătək, *ə̆ntək ‘brain’ Sin
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*siməhəŋ, *simăhoŋ ‘ten’ S
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mə̆kəd, Tringgus Bireng məkəd,
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*săʔə, *siʔə ‘kill’ Grogo
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də̆ŋan, Tringgus Bireng dĭŋeː
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*ɲinsap ‘suck’ hisap *sinsin
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*t *k *b *ɡ *r *s Anah Rais prĭʔ
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Tringgus Raya kāsah, Tebakang kir
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2.6.1 Consonants Proto Bidayuh had
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Singai Sin Bratak 78.8 Bra Table 9.
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Proto Land Dayak Bidayuh Bakati Bak
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*t *k *b *d *j *ɡ *m *n *ɲ *ŋ *l
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*[d]iu 1ʔ ‘true’ Rara diyuʔ,
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correspondences for the vowel *a ar
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*ara 1d ‘wing’ Rara arat, Sara/
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There is a small group of words tha
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*j *ɡ *m *n *ɲ *ŋ *l *r *s *jaŋ
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3.2.3 Coda of the penult Only nasal
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4 Proto Bidayuh-Bakati’ The Biday
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For the present we will posit PBB *
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*mbeen ‘wash (hands)’ PBid *ŋu
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*sVbərək ‘hungry’ PBid *sibə
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chart: The usual correspondences fo
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*ɡăɡah ‘strong (person)’ PBi
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However, other alternations include
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*năŋko ‘steal’ PBid *năŋku,
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If the following Bidayuh and Bakati
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**k ** ĭkan ‘fish’ Proto Biday
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It seems probable that only **r is
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**s **kăsuh ‘dog’ Proto Bidayu
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These Southern Land Dayak forms see
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**kămbət, **k-ar-ĭmbət, **k-an-
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position usually occur before voice
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e reconstructed for these sets or e
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As can be observed from the precedi
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Even in Proto Bidayuh in a high pro
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5.1.2.5 Vocalic length The data fro
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**tərəp, **t/dărəm ‘deep’ P
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**ăpuy, **ăpi ‘fire’ Proto Bi
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**p **piʔin, **paʔin ‘water’
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**m-i/ŭ/ādip ‘alive’ Proto Bi
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**ŭduh, **iduh ‘grass’ Proto B
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**ŭ ̆̆ ̆ **ŭjan ‘rain’ Pr
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Examples of sə, bə and po are fou
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It is possible that Proto Land Daya
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6 Roots of the Land Dayak languages
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PPhil *ləpád, PLD *măbər, *mibi
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PAN *l > *r PAN *limáH > PLD *rim
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PLD laryngeals. Since the developme
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PHF *besúR ‘full, sated > PLD *b
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PHN *suŋay > PLD *sūŋi ‘river
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Bengoh taːs, Anah Rais taːs, Biya
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PHN (Z) *ubú[qʔ] ‘short’ (296
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PAN *kálih ‘dig (out)’ > PBB *
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*măriʔ, *pāriʔ ‘go back, retu
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A. Table 19. Distribution of Sound
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3. The contrast between full and re
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**kăjaʔ ‘leg’ Proto Bidayuh *
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**ridiʔ, **radiʔ ‘thin’ Proto
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Another change (Group F) has affect
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**tăkiʔ ‘excrement’ Proto Bid
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7 A final word In these pages we ha
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Serasot batuh, Grogo batuh, Stass b
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Proto Bakati’ *ampun ‘cloud’
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Proto Bakati’ *sawa 1ʔ ‘year
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təŋən (kəyuh), təŋəy, Bratak
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PHN *balat ‘banana species’ (co
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manuk (ʔ is the more common reflex
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Bukar-Sadong siok [siyɔk], Bunan s
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Rara kampawaʔ ‘spider’. Ribun-
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mbak, Biatah ubak, Bistaang baːk,
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Tebakang pămpi, Bukar-Sadong pămp
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Proto Land Dayak **isuk Proto Biday
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Proto Bidayuh *pŭduh, *pudun ‘ga
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unclear whether these forms reflect
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Proto Bakati’ *ŋayo 2 ‘scratch
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Proto Bakati’ *[m]uɲu 1ŋ ‘sit
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Biatah aran, Bistaang ran, Benuk (a
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Proto Bidayuh *jătuːʔ ‘fall’
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PMP *Ra-[n]+dut ‘pull out’ Prot
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Proto Bidayuh *ku/ŋi/ni-suː̼ ̼
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mamuh, Biatah māmuh, Bistaang mām
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Proto Bakati’ *ɡulu 1k ‘laugh
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PMP *uDahik ‘go upstream’ Proto
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Rais dăyəh, Tringgus Bireng dăy
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Serambu sipot, Bratak sipot, Seraso
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Bibengih pădi, Sangking isih pădi
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sănduk, Bibengih sănduk, Sangking
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Serasot ɲuop, Grogo ɲuop, Stass
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PAN (D) *musipa ‘chew betel’, P
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Proto Land Dayak **dāyuŋ Proto Bi
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Tringgus Raya mīrih, Tringgus Bire
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Proto Bidayuh *ănjan ‘ladder’
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dukoh, Ribun-A duku a h, Semandang
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Proto Bakati’ *saribu 1 ‘one th
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Proto Bakati’ *aŋho 2 ‘long’
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Proto Bakati’ *sunu 1 ‘dull’
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Proto Land Dayak **insək, **in[s]i
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Tringgus Raya ɲama, Tringgus Biren
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kudu, Biatah kudu, Bistaang kădu,
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PAN *kamí Proto Bidayuh-Bakati’
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məndam, Biatah birăndam, Sapug m
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Proto Bakati’ *ka sada 1n ‘insi
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Proto Bidayuh-Bakati’ *bădaʔ Pr
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*băɡəːʔ many (things) (299) *b
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*jan, *ăjan, *ijan, *ŭjan, *jen,
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*mūsiŋ, *pūsiŋ, *pūsin, *mūsi
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*sădeʔ, *sĭdeʔ, *sudiʔ, *sŭde
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B.2 Proto Bakati’ *aba 1k head (7
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*ŋ/ɲito 1ŋ count (294) *ŋoo 1t
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*pVriok cooking pot (223) *pV̆teː
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**nāŋ-kap, **nāŋ-kəp, **da-kup
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**tubəh 1, **tə̆bəh tuba plant
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chew betel 244 chicken 56 child 255
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kill 201, 129 kingfisher 52 kiss 11
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soot 226 soul 236, 181 sound 181 so
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1 Introduction PART IV A Classifica
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Gunam: Dayak Ribun (Parindu, Sangga
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c) Denasalization of final nasals.
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3 Sub-grouping of the varieties of
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Sub-group IV, Moro Betung and Saham
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*bănaʔ ‘wind’ Tanap bonoʔ, S
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*tājə ‘dull’ Bidayuh *tājə,
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It is this third lexical pattern th
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*Vnto ‘this’ Semirau ənto, Tan
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A. Satu Kome Semirau Tanggung Upe k
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Leminang ntoh N. Mongkok nto Selamp
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Kembayan (A) Empodis kohosiyak tahi
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*…uk *manuk (47) *tutuk (81) *ruk
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Semirau nokᵑ dayukᵑ Tanggung no
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In open syllables and before the ve
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Ribun (A) ntileʸʔ ŋombeʸʔ Guna
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Semirau jotuk oko omo Tanggung jotu
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N. Mongkok botuh omuh abuʰ Selampo
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*baik ‘good’ Tanap baek, Semong
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6 Sound changes that have impacted
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*piʔin, *paʔin ‘water’ Ambawa
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*m-ədəp ‘alive, green’ Tanap
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*jĭraɁ ‘tongue’ Tanap jiroɁ,
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Appendix IV—Cognate sets *dărəd
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*săwaʔ ‘year’ Bidayuh *săwa
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Ntoloʔ, Engkahan Ntuloʔ, Selampon
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Ribun (Hudson) motuh, Gunam motuh,
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*niŋaʔ ‘look, watch’ Bidayuh
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Engkahan bənalik, Tanap baliaʔ, S
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*tikam ‘throw’ Ribun nikam, Nan
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Leminang nampar, Nangka Mongkok tam
Page 501 and 502:
Bidayuh *sāma:ʔ, Mandong maʔ, Ba
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Nangka Mongkok limaʔ, Selampong li
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*tumpul ‘dull’ Ambawang Satu tu
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*m-udup Nanga Rakan mudup, Lubuk Ta
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may be related to the immediately p
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*timul ‘float’ Mandong timul, B
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References Adat Bidayuh 1994, Saraw
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Hickling, Hugh. 1959. Sarawak and I
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Shelford, Robert W. (1916) 1985. A
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