Implementing food-based dietary guidelines for - United Nations ...

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S94 ments, even among countries where omnivorous diets are habitually consumed. For example, in UK mixed diets, iron is assumed to have a fixed bioavailability of 15%, irrespective of age and life-stage group [207], whereas in the United States and Canada, a factor of 18% is used for the bioavailability of iron in the mixed diets of both children and nonpregnant adults, but 25% is used for women in the second and third trimesters of pregnancy and 10% for those consuming vegetarian diets [204]. Similarly, the United Kingdom uses a fixed factor of 30% for zinc, irrespective of age and life-stage group [207], but the United States and Canada apply a factor of 41% and 48% for the bioavailability of zinc from diets of adult (over 19 years) males and females, respectively, and 30% for preadolescent children [204]. Australia and New Zealand have adopted the US and Canadian bioavailability adjustments for iron for children 4 years of age or older, nonpregnant adults, and vegetarians, but the IZiNCG adjustments for zinc [36, 208]. Other expert groups, such as FAO/WHO [181] and IZiNCG [36], employ several factors to adjust for the bioavailability of iron and zinc, depending on the composition of the habitual diet, as noted earlier. References 1. Hurrell R. Bioavailability—a time for reflection. Int J Vitam Nutr Res 2002;72:5–6. 2. West CE, Eilander A, van Lieshout M. Consequences of revised estimates of carotenoid bioefficacy for dietary control of vitamin A deficiency in developing countries. J Nutr 2002;132(9 suppl):2920S–6S. 3. Cook JD, Dassenko SA, Lynch SR. Assessment of the role of nonheme-iron availability in iron balance. Am J Clin Nutr 1991;54:717–22. 4. Tidehag P, Hallmans G, Wing K, Sjöström R, Ågren G, Lundin E, Zhang JX. A comparison of iron absorption from single meals and daily diets using radioFe ( 55 Fe, 59 Fe). Br J Nutr 1996;75:281–9. 5. Powers HJ. Riboflavin (vitamin B-2) and health. Am J Clin Nutr 2003;77:1352–60. 6. Institute of Medicine. Dietary reference intakes for thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, vitamin B 6 , folate, vitamin B 12 , pantothenic acid, biotin, and choline. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1998. 7. Schaafsma G. Bioavailability of calcium and magnesium. Eur J Clin Nutr 1997;51(suppl 1):S13–6. 8. Stoecker B. Chromium. In: Bowman BA, Russell RM, eds. Present knowledge in nutrition. Washington, DC: International Life Sciences Institute, 2001:366–72. 9. Gregory JF 3rd. Bioavailability of vitamin B 6 . Eur J Clin Nutr 1997;51:S43–8. 10. Harvey PW, Dexter PB, Darnton-Hill I. The impact of consuming iron from non-food sources on iron status in developing countries. Public Health Nutr 2000;3: 375–83. 11. Hallberg L. Bioavailability of dietary iron in man. Annu Rev Nutr 1981;1:123–47. 12. Yip R. Iron. In: Bowman BA, Russell RM, eds. Present Conclusions R. S. Gibson Adjustments are needed to translate physiological requirements into dietary requirements for certain nutrients, notably calcium, magnesium, iron, zinc, protein, folate, and vitamin A. The magnitude of the adjustments depends on the nutrient and will vary according to the nature of the habitual diet and a variety of host-related factors. However, information on some of the host-related factors, especially those that influence the efficiency of luminal and mucosal digestion and absorption, is often limited, so that their effects on nutrient bioavailability are often ignored when setting dietary requirement estimates. At present, several algorithms have been developed to predict the bioavailability of iron, zinc, protein, folate, vitamin A, and carotenoids, but there is still no consensus among countries about which are the best algorithms to use. In some countries, fixed bioavailability factors are still used for certain nutrients, even though their efficiency of absorption may vary with the dietary level of the nutrient or the life-stage group. knowledge in nutrition. Washington, DC: International Life Sciences Institute, 2001:311–28. 13. Hurrell RF. Preventing iron deficiency through food fortification. Nutr Rev 1997;55:210–22. 14. Solomons NW, Jacob RA, Pineda O, Viteri FE. Studies on the bioavailability of zinc in man. II. Absorption of zinc from organic and inorganic sources. J Lab Clin Med 1979;94:335–43. 15. Moser-Veillon PB, Mangels AR, Patterson KY, Veillon C. Utilization of two different chemical forms of selenium during lactation using stable isotope tracers: An example of speciation in nutrition. Analyst 1992;117:559–62. 16. Yeum KJ, Russell RM. Carotenoid bioavailability and bioconversion. Annu Rev Nutr 2002;22:483–504. 17. McNulty H, Pentieva K. Folate bioavailability. Proc Nutr Soc 2004;63:529–36. 18. Melse-Boonstra A, Verhoef P, West C. Quantifying folate bioavailability: A critical appraisal of methods. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care 2004;7:539–45. 19. Sauberlich HE, Kretsch MJ, Skala JH, Johnson HL, Taylor PC. Folate requirement and metabolism in nonpregnant women. Am J Clin Nutr 1987;46:1016–28. 20. Pfeiffer CM, Rogers LM, Bailey LB, Gregory JF 3rd. Absorption of folate from fortified cereal-grain products and of supplemental folate consumed with or without food determined by using a dual-label stable-isotope protocol. Am J Clin Nutr 1997;66:1388–97. 21. van den Berg H, van den Gaag M, Hendriks H. Influence of lifestyle on vitamin bioavailability. Int J Vitamin Nutr Res 2001; 72:53–9. 22. Gregory JF 3rd. Bioavailability of thiamin. Eur J Clin Nutr 1997;51(suppl 1):S34–7. 23. Castenmiller JJM, West CE. Bioavailability and biocon-
Diet- and host-related factors in nutrient bioavailability version of carotenoids. Annu Rev Nutr 1998;18:19–38. 24. Bailey LB, Moyers S, Gregory JF 3rd. Folate. In: Bowman BA, Russell RM, eds. Present knowledge in nutrition. Washington, DC: International Life Sciences Institute, 2001:214–29. 25. van het Hof KH, Tijburg LBM, Pietrzik K, Weststrate JA. Influence of feeding different vegetables on plasma levels of carotenoids, folate and vitamin C. Effect of disruption of the vegetable matrix. Br J Nutr 1999;82:203–12. 26. Sandström B. Bioavailability of zinc. Eur J Clin Nutr 1997;51(suppl 1):S17–9. 27. Fairweather-Tait S, Hurrell RF. Bioavailability of minerals and trace elements. Nutr Res Rev 1996;9:295–324. 28. Manary MJ, Hotz C, Krebs NF, Gibson RS, Westcott JE, Broadhead RL, Hambidge KM. Zinc homeostasis in Malawian children consuming a high-phytate, maizebased diet. Am J Clin Nutr 2002;75:1057–61. 29. Gibson RS. Zinc nutrition in developing countries. Nutr Res Rev 1994;7:151–73. 30. Egli I, Davidsson L, Zeder C, Walczyk T, Hurrell R. Dephytinization of a complementary food based on wheat and soy increases zinc, but not copper, apparent absorption in adults. J Nutr 2004;134:1077–80. 31. Morris ER, Ellis R. Bioavailability of dietary calcium. In: Kies C, ed. Nutritional bioavailabilty of calcium. Washington DC: American Chemical Society, 1985:63–72. 32. Lönnerdal B, Sandberg AS, Sandstrom B, Kunz C. Inhibitory effects of phytic acid and other inositol phosphates on zinc and calcium absorption in suckling rats. J Nutr 1989;119:211–4. 33. Sandberg AS, Brune M, Carlsson NG, Hallberg L, Skoglund E, Rossander-Hulthen L. Inositol phosphates with different numbers of phosphate groups influence iron absorption in humans. Am J Clin Nutr 1999;70:240–6. 34. Brune ML, Rossander L, Hallberg L. No intestinal adaptation to a high-phytate diet. Am J Clin Nutr 1989;49:542–5. 35. Fordyce EJ, Forbes RM, Robbins KR, Erdman JW Jr. Phytate × calcium/zinc molar ratios: Are they predictive of zinc bioavailability? J Food Sci 1987;52:440–4. 36. Hotz C, Brown KM, eds. Assessment of the risk of zinc deficiency in populations and options for its control. Food Nutr Bull 2004;25(suppl):S95–203. 37. World Health Organization. Trace elements in human nutrition and health. Geneva: WHO, 1996. 38. Hurrell RF. Phytic acid degradation as a means of improving iron absorption. Int J Vitam Nutr Res 2004;74:445–52. 39. Murray-Kolb LE, Welch R, Theil EC, Beard JL. Women with low iron stores absorb iron from soybeans. Am J Clin Nutr 2003;77:180–4. 40. Bravo L. Polyphenols: Chemistry, dietary sources, metabolism, and nutritional significance. Nutr Rev 1998; 56:317–33. 41. Brune M, Rossander L, Hallberg L. Iron absorption and phenolic compounds: Importance of different phenolic structures. Eur J Clin Nutr 1989;43:547–57. 42. Kies C, Umoren J. Inhibitors of copper bioutilization: Fiber, lead, phytate and tannins. Adv Exp Med Biol 1989;258:81–93. 43. Coudray C, Bousset C, Tressol JC, Pepin D, Rayssiguier Y. Short-term ingestion of chlorogenic or caffeic acids S95 decreases zinc but not copper absorption in rats, utilization of stable isotopes and inductively-coupled plasma mass spectrometry technique. Br J Nutr 1998;80:575– 84. 44. Jansman AJM, Houdijk JGM, Verstegen MWA. Effect of condensed tannins in faba beans (Vicia faba L.) on the availability of minerals in pigs. In: Schlemmer U, ed. Bioavailability ’93: Nutritional, chemical and food processing implications of nutrient availability. Karlsruhe, Germany: Federation of European Chemical Societies, 1993. 45. Fraile AL, Flynn A. The absorption of manganese from polyphenol-containing beverages in suckling rats. Int J Food Sci Nutr 1992;43:163–8. 46. Hurrell RF, Reddy MB, Juillerat M-A, Cook JD. Degradation of phytic acid in cereal porridges improves iron absorption by human subjects. Am J Clin Nutr 2003;77:1213–9. 47. Reddy MB, Cook JD. Assessment of dietary determinants of nonheme-iron absorption in humans and rats. Am J Clin Nutr 1991;54:723–8. 48. Siegenberg D, Baynes RD, Bothwell TH, Marfarlane BJ, Lamparelli RD, Car NG, MacPhail P, Schmidt U, Tal A, Mayet F. Ascorbic acid prevents the dose-dependent inhibitory effects of polyphenols and phytates on nonheme iron absorption. Am J Clin Nutr 1991;53:537–41. 49. Temme EHM, Van Hoydonck PGA. Tea consumption and iron status. Eur J Clin Nutr 2002;56:379–86. 50. Fleming DJ, Jacques PF, Dallal GE, Tucker KL, Wilson PW, Wood RJ. Dietary determinants of iron stores in a free-living elderly population: The Framingham Heart Study. Am J Clin Nutr 1998;67:722–33. 51. Merhav HY, Amitai Y, Palti H, Godfrey S. Tea drinking and microcytic anemia in infants. Am J Clin Nutr 1985;41:1210–3. 52. Dewey KG, Romero-Abal ME, Quan de Serrano J, Bulux J, Peerson JM, Engle P, Solomons N. Effects of discontinuing coffee intake on iron status of iron-deficient Guatemalan toddlers: A randomized intervention study. Am J Clin Nutr 1997;66:168–76. 53. Bates CJ. Thiamin. In: Bowman BA, Russell RM, eds. Present knowledge in nutrition. Washington, DC: International Life Sciences Institute, 2001:184–90. 54. Longstaff MA, McNab JM. The effect of concentration of tannin-rich bean hulls (Vicia faba L.) on activities of lipase (EC 3.1.1.3) and alpha-amylase (EC 3.2.1.1) in digesta and pancreas and on the digestion of lipid and starch by young chicks. Br J Nutr 1991;66:139–47. 55. Jansman AJ, Enting H, Verstegen MWA, Huisman J. Effect of condensed tannins in hulls of faba beans (Vicia faba L.) on the activities of trypsin (EC 2.4.21.4) and chymotrypsin (EC 2.4.21.1) in digesta collected from the small intestine of pigs. Br J Nutr 1994;71:627–41. 56. Quesada C, Bartolome B, Nieto O, Gomez Cordoves C, Hernandez T, Estrella I. Phenolic inhibitors of alphaamylase and trypsin enzymes by extracts from pears, lentils, and cocoa. J Food Protect 1996;59:185–92. 57. Bravo L, Manas E, Saura-Calixto F. Dietary nonextractable condensed tannins as indigestible compounds: Effects on faecal weight, and protein and fat excretion. J Sci Food Agric 1993;63:63–8. 58. Gallaher DD, Schneeman BO. Dietary fiber. In: Bowman BA, Russell RM, eds. Present knowledge in nutrition.
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Contents International harmonizatio
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Executive summary Harmonization of
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Executive summary [11]. These are l
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Executive summary and converted to
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Executive summary very rapidly and
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Executive summary References Concep
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Introduction Janet C. King and Cutb
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Introduction References 1. King JC,
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Terminology and framework for nutri
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Nutrient risk assessment: Setting u
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Setting upper levels for nutrient r
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Establishing nutrient intake values
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Establishing nutrient intake values
Page 43 and 44: Establishing nutrient intake values
Page 51 and 52: Methods for using nutrient intake v
Page 53 and 54: Using nutrient intake values to ass
Page 61 and 62: Determining life-stage groups and e
Page 63 and 64: Life-stage groups and nutrient inta
Page 77 and 78: The role of diet- and host-related
Page 79 and 80: Diet- and host-related factors in n
Page 93: Diet- and host-related factors in n
Page 101 and 102: Human nutrition and genetic variati
Page 117 and 118: Application of nutrient intake valu
Page 123 and 124: Trade, development, and regulatory
Page 141 and 142: Beyond recommendations: Implementin
Page 143 and 144: Dietary guidelines and nutrient int
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Dietary guidelines and nutrient int
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International Dietary Harmonization
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