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Solution The PEM format represents DER-encoded data in a printable format. Traditionally, PEM encoding simply base64-encodes DER-encoded data and adds a simple header and footer. OpenSSLprovides an API for such functionality that handles the DER encoding and header writing for you. OpenSSLhas introduced extensions for using encrypted DER representations, allowing you to use PEM to store encrypted private keys and other cryptographic data in ASCII format. Discussion Privacy Enhanced Mail (PEM) is the original encrypted email standard. Although the standard is long dead, a small subset of its encoding mechanism has managed to survive. In today’s day and age, PEM-encoded data is usually just DER-encoded data with a header and footer. The header is a single line consisting of five dashes followed by the word “BEGIN”, followed by anything. The data following the word “BEGIN” is not really standardized. In some cases, there might not be anything following this word. However, if you are using the OpenSSLPEM outputting routines, there is a textual description of the type of data object encoded. For example, OpenSSLproduces the following header line for an RSA private key: -----BEGIN RSA PRIVATE KEY----- This is a good convention, and one that is widely used. The footer has the same format, except that “BEGIN” is replaced with “END”. You should expect that anything could follow. Again, OpenSSLuses a textual description of the content. In between the two lines is a base64-encoded DER representation, which may contain line breaks (\r\n, often called CRLFs for “carriage return and line feed”), which get ignored. We cover base64 in Recipes 4.5 and 4.6, and DER encoding in Recipe 7.16. If you want to encrypt a DER object, the original PEM format supported that as well, but no one uses these extensions today. OpenSSLdoes implement something similar. First, we’ll describe what OpenSSLdoes, because this will offer compatibility with applications built with OpenSSLthat use this format—most notably Apache with mod_ssl. Next, we’ll demonstrate how to use OpenSSL’s PEM API directly. We’ll explain this format by walking through an example. Here’s a PEM-encoded, encrypted RSA private key: -----BEGIN RSA PRIVATE KEY----- Proc-Type: 4,ENCRYPTED DEK-Info: DES-EDE3-CBC,F2D4E6438DBD4EA8 356 | Chapter 7: Public Key Cryptography This is the Title of the Book, eMatter Edition Copyright © 2007 O’Reilly & Associates, Inc. All rights reserved.
LjKQ2r1Yt9foxbHdLKZeClqZuzN7PoEmy+b+dKq9qibaH4pRcwATuWt4/Jzl6y85 NHM6CM4bOV1MHkyD01tFsT4kJ0GwRPg4tKAiTNjE4Yrz9V3rESiQKridtXMOToEp Mj2nSvVKRSNEeG33GNIYUeMfSSc3oTmZVOlHNp9f8LEYWNmIjfzlHExvgJaPrixX QiPGJ6K05kV5FJWRPET9vI+kyouAm6DBcyAhmR80NYRvaBbXGM/MxBgQ7koFVaI5 zoJ/NBdEIMdHNUh0h11GQCXAQXOSL6Fx2hRdcicm6j1CPd3AFrTt9EATmd4Hj+D4 91jDYXElALfdSbiO0A9Mz6USUepTXwlfVV/cbBpLRz5Rqnyg2EwI2tZRU+E+Cusb /b6hcuWyzva895YMUCSyDaLgSsIqRWmXxQV1W2bAgRbs8jD8VF+G9w= = -----END RSA PRIVATE KEY----- The first line is as discussed at the beginning of this section. Table 7-4 lists the most useful values for the data type specified in the first and last line. Other values can be found in openssl/pem.h. Table 7-4. PEM header types Name Comments RSA PUBLIC KEY –– RSA PRIVATE KEY –– DSA PUBLIC KEY –– DSA PRIVATE KEY –– DH PARAMETERS Parameters for Diffie-Hellman key exchange CERTIFICATE An X.509 digital certificate TRUSTED CERTIFICATE A fully trusted X.509 digital certificate CERTIFICATE REQUEST A PKCS #10 certificate signing request X509 CRL An X.509 certificate revocation list SSL SESSION PARAMETERS –– The header line is followed by three lines that look like MIME headers. Do not treat them as MIME headers, though. Yes, the base64-encrypted text is separated from the header information by a line with nothing on it (two CRLFs). However, you should assume that there is no real flexibility in the headers. You should have either the two headers that are there, or nothing (and if you’re not including headers, be sure to remove the blank line). In addition, the headers should be in the order shown above, and they should have the same comma-separated fields. As far as we can determine, the second line must appear exactly as shown above for OpenSSLcompatibility. There’s some logic in OpenSSLto handle two other options that would add an integrity-checking value to the data being encoded, but it appears that the OpenSSLteam never actually finished a full implementation, so these other options aren’t used (it’s left over from a time when the OpenSSLimplementers were concerned about compliance with the original PEM RFCs). The first parameter on the “DEK-Info” line (where DEK stands for “data encrypting key”) contains an ASCII representation of the algorithm used for encryption, which should always be a CBC-based mode. Table 7-5 lists the identifiers OpenSSL currently supports. Representing Keys and Certificates in Plaintext (PEM Encoding) | 357 This is the Title of the Book, eMatter Edition Copyright © 2007 O’Reilly & Associates, Inc. All rights reserved.
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Secure Programming Cookbook ΤΜ fo
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Secure Programming CookbookΤΜ for
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Table of Contents Foreword . . . .
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5.8 Using a Generic OFB Mode Implem
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8.10 Performing Password-Based Auth
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12.10 Restructuring Arrays 672 12.1
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they are in the top 50% of safe dri
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think you are in, you will probably
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the C programming language, with so
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igger risks than anticipated. You s
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Recipe Compatibility Most of the re
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The O’Reilly web site for the boo
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Chapter 1 CHAPTER 1 Safe Initializa
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using the code in this recipe on Wi
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variables you preserve, be sure to
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ptr = (char *)new_environ + (arr_si
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an impersonation token for a thread
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Creating a new process with a restr
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array that is the Privileges field.
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eturn 0; } if (!LookupAccountName(0
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privileges. We strongly advise agai
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#include #include #include #incl
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sockets provide a means by which fi
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The privman library provides a numb
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The potential for security vulnerab
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It’s important to remember that t
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Discussion execve( ) is the system
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should call pclose( ) to clean up t
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dup2(stdout_pipe[1], 1); close(stdo
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lpCommandLine Any command-line argu
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#include #include #include void
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and a saved user ID. * The effectiv
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See Also Recipes 1.3, 1.4, 2.8 2.2
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of the object, regardless of what t
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There are many other situations whe
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if (!(fd = opendir("."))) break; if
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spc_file_wipe( ) A wrapper around t
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if (pattern_pass(fd, buf, sizeof(bu
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CryptReleaseContext(hProvider, 0);
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2.7 Restricting Access Permissions
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eset the umask between your adjustm
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Locking files on Windows Where Unix
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NFS older than Version 3 in particu
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a loop until all the data is read.
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if (!(hResourceLock = CreateMutex(0
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generator. The code presented here
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access to the filesystem, the poten
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Chapter 3 CHAPTER 3 Input Validatio
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components of the system are truste
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try to use them. For example, what
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To combat malicious uses of “%n
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Discussion Buffer overflows get a l
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Unfortunately, strlcpy( ) and strlc
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The second problem area occurs when
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(see Recipe 3.2). The format-string
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safestr_release( ) or safestr_free(
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Solution Unfortunately, integer coe
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which the records begin. Generally,
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pointer or a different value altoge
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if (!(new_environ = (char **)malloc
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if (spc_environ) free(environ); env
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GetFullPathName( ) requires the len
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if (*c != '%' || !isxdigit(c[1]) ||
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3.10 Preventing Cross-Site Scriptin
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* These are HTML tags that do not t
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*ptr++ = *c; } while (*++c != ’>
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Finally, if you are using the LIKE
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Table 3-2. UTF-8 encoding byte sequ
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the connections to the server. The
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SPC_FD_SET read_mask; for (;;) { sp
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To ensure that you choose the right
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See Also Recipe 13.2 4.2 Generating
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This function takes the following a
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} break; default: if (isspace(p[0])
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*p = 0; return output; } } } The pu
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} return result; case -1: if (stric
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#define MAX_WORDLEN 4 /* len parame
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Discussion This function spc_words2
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4.9 Using Salts, Nonces, and Initia
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the lifetime of the key; the counte
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#include #include #include #incl
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#include #include /* This value n
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} CryptReleaseContext(hProvider, hK
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cryptographic one-way hash from a t
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HMAC_CTX c; unsigned long ctr = 0,
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database does not support binary st
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Remember to use a MAC anytime you e
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For many different reasons, it can
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A more portable but less accurate w
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Chapter 5 CHAPTER 5 Symmetric Encry
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Discussion Be sure to read this dis
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Pentium III, which should give a go
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locations where 40-bit keys or 56-b
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can arise. For general-purpose use,
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or similar mechanism is used. As wi
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shares many properties with CTR mod
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case, the faster of the two algorit
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parison to standard modes. As of th
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work, which severely limits portabi
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Table 5-4. Implementations for the
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Plaintext block 1 Plaintext block 2
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typedef struct { SPC_KEY_SCHED ks;
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If you are using padding and you kn
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This function has the following arg
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if (ol) *ol = out - start; return 1
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that the state function is always r
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Note that this code depends on the
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if (!il--) return 1; ctx->nonce[ctx
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one block at a time, by encrypting
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spc_memset(key,0, kl); memcpy(ctx->
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5.9 Using a Generic CTR Mode Implem
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These two functions also erase the
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we ignore that because it will alwa
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Once those bindings are made, the Z
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output Buffer into which the plaint
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eturn the number of valid bytes in
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In CBC, CFB, and OFB modes, encrypt
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void spc_pctr_do_odd(SPC_CTR2_CTX *
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5.15 Performing File or Disk Encryp
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Therefore, we’ll show you LION, b
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} RC4_set_key(&k, HASH_SZ, (char *)
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techniques from Chapter 8), the key
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communicate asynchronously (that is
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key Pointer to the encryption key t
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Table 5-6. Cipher instantiation ref
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While RC2, RC4, and RC5 support abs
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The function EVP_CIPHER_CTX_ctrl( )
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Discussion As a reminder, use a raw
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ol = 0; if (!(ret = (char *)malloc(
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The “official” RC4 key setup fu
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Discussion One-time pads are provab
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Once a provider context has been su
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Table 5-8. Symmetric ciphers suppor
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hKey Key to use for performing the
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if (!CryptAcquireContext(&hProvider
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exportable from key objects, but th
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Chapter 6 CHAPTER 6 Hashes and Mess
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Generally, you should prefer an enc
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See Also Recipes 6.7, 6.8, 6.12 6.2
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Noncorrelation It should also be co
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Let’s look briefly at the pros an
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Solution In most cases, instead of
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MAC (which we recommend), we strong
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Libraries with cryptographic hash f
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#include int main(int argc, char *
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See Also Implementations of SHA-256
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CryptAcquireContext(&hProvider, 0,
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To ensure the best security, we str
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if (!(vfy = (unsigned char *)malloc
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you might use a library such as Ope
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Otherwise, you can use the HMAC imp
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if (klen inner[i] ^= key[i]; ctx->o
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OMAC has been explicitly specified
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unsigned char c1[SPC_BLOCK_SZ]; /*
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ing the all-zero data block. Each p
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CMAC is the message-integrity compo
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To postprocess, we encrypt the hash
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6.15 Constructing a Hash Function f
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unsigned char b[SPC_KEY_SZ]; size_t
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Figure 6-2. The Mayas-Meyer-Oseas c
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c->ix = 0; c->tl = 0; } static void
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modes such as CWC and CCM are start
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authentication in a straightforward
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SPC_HMAC_Reset(&ctx); SPC_HMAC_Upda
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Page 335 and 336: Chapter 7 CHAPTER 7 Public Key Cryp
Page 337 and 338: The code presented in this chapter
Page 339 and 340: Because public key encryption is so
Page 341 and 342: Solution There’s some debate on t
Page 343 and 344: 7.4 Manipulating Big Numbers Proble
Page 345 and 346: There’s a similar function for as
Page 347 and 348: Additionally, you can ask for a ran
Page 349 and 350: In addition, you might wish to test
Page 351 and 352: Table 7-2. Math operations supporte
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Page 355 and 356: for (b = 0; !BN_is_odd(x); b++) BN_
Page 357 and 358: BIGNUM *dP, *dQ, *qInv; } RSA_PRIVA
Page 359 and 360: This would map to the hexadecimal v
Page 361 and 362: compute d. Without those two primes
Page 363 and 364: The constants that may be used to s
Page 365 and 366: When using OpenSSL, decryption can
Page 367 and 368: ecommend using it, unless you are c
Page 369 and 370: ture is valid. A successful check w
Page 371 and 372: et = RSA_verify(NID_sha1, hash, 20,
Page 373 and 374: #define MIN(x,y) ((x) > (y) ? (y) :
Page 375 and 376: memcpy(signedtext, decrypt, 16); if
Page 377 and 378: h_ret Optional argument that, if no
Page 379 and 380: siglen The number of bytes written
Page 381 and 382: data ready to go into the certifica
Page 383: ut it requires you to pass in the l
Page 387 and 388: ing in data, pass in a pointer to a
Page 389 and 390: Table 7-6 lists the FILE object-bas
Page 391 and 392: Solution The correct method depends
Page 393 and 394: Use across applications For some pe
Page 395 and 396: key agreement protocol, where both
Page 397 and 398: consider slightly more sophisticate
Page 399 and 400: Kerberos does assume that the envir
Page 401 and 402: The function used to look up user i
Page 403 and 404: The group structure that is returne
Page 405 and 406: found, NULL will be returned, and G
Page 407 and 408: ReferencedDomainName = (LPTSTR)Loca
Page 409 and 410: if (errno != EINTR && errno != EAGA
Page 411 and 412: if (!(spc_host_rulecount % 256)) {
Page 413 and 414: } else { if (inet_addr(tmp) = = INA
Page 415 and 416: 8.5 Generating Random Passwords and
Page 417 and 418: for this list is not insignificant.
Page 419 and 420: file, it may allocate a sizable amo
Page 421 and 422: On Windows, you can use the standar
Page 423 and 424: Once getpass( ) or readpassphrase(
Page 425 and 426: ters typed by the user. Instead, th
Page 427 and 428: compute the future time at which th
Page 429 and 430: decrypt the encrypted data. To make
Page 431 and 432: On systems that support MCF through
Page 433 and 434: for (i = 0; i < 1000; i++) { MD5_In
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CryptHashData(hHash1, lpszKey, dwKe
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Solution Use the PBKDF2 method of c
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Verifying a password encrypted usin
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c Pointer to an integer that will r
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each of these pieces of information
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server-side part of the authenticat
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8.14 Authenticating with HTTP Cooki
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char *spc_cookie_encode(char *cooki
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• Let the salt be public, in whic
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extra Additional application-specif
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xl Pointer into which the length of
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With a valid socket descriptor in h
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11. The client and the server compu
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Some people like to use a fixed mod
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Often, you’ll want to generate a
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Discussion Remember, authentication
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• Provide the user with some way
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if (!fgets(answer, sizeof(answer),
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uffer = (char *)realloc(buffer, buf
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compromise. If our system has such
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When using RSA, if you’re doing o
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see the confirmation request and th
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Upon receipt of a response to a con
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BOOL SpcConfirmationCreate(LPCTSTR
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Additionally, over time, SSPI-speci
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if (!spc_verify_cert_hostname(SSL_g
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The next step is to call spc_accept
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Discussion Session caching is norma
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if (BIO_do_connect(conn)
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The next step is to connect to the
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DWORD dwHeadersLength = 0; LPSTR lp
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attempt to develop and debug SSL-en
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API for encryption and decryption,
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memcpy(in_data.data, inbuf, inlen);
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*outlen = out_data.length - (blksz
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so. Likewise, any process with the
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struct sockaddr_un *addr_unix; *dom
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error_exit: if (sock) spc_socket_cl
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different ways. On FreeBSD systems,
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msg.msg_iov->iov_base = (void *)&sy
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it’s unique and unpredictable! Yo
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if (mysql_real_connect(mysql, host,
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maintenance. Adding or removing ser
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ut they shouldn’t tolerate reorde
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#define SPC_CLIENT_DISTINGUISHER 0x
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} static void spc_ssock_write( int
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while (mlen) { if ((r = read(fd, ms
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In such cases, you need to be able
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Discussion One of the big motivator
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A digital certificate contains info
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Certificate revocation What happens
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cate as long as it still has its pr
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Currently, OCSP is not nearly as wi
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ple is the permissible uses for a c
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automated email to the address you
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The type of code-signing certificat
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10.3 Using Root Certificates Proble
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Table 10-1. CA certificates, their
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ights of the entity tied to that ce
Page 553 and 554:
10.5 Performing X.509 Certificate V
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sk_X509_free(spc_store->crls); sk_X
Page 557 and 558:
X509_LOOKUP *lookup; store = X509_S
Page 559 and 560:
CertGetIssuerCertificateFromStore(
Page 561 and 562:
HCERTSTORE hCertStore; PCCERT_CONTE
Page 563 and 564:
See Also Recipe 10.11 10.7 Verifyin
Page 565 and 566:
SPC_X509STORE_SSL_VERIFY_NONE This
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verify_flags |= SSL_VERIFY_FAIL_IF_
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int spc_verify_cert_hostname(X509 *
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for (i = 0; !bResult && i < pNameIn
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only work you really need to do is
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digest = EVP_sha1( ); fingerprint_l
Page 577 and 578:
if (cert && (uri = get_distribution
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"\xb3\x9c\x25\xb1\xc3\x2e\x32\x53\x
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headerlen -= (*datalen + 2); if (*d
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In this recipe, we have used a numb
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{ "\x8d\x26\xff\x2f\x31\x6d\x59x\29
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LocalFree(pvStructInfo); return 0;
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lpFullBuffer = lpNewBuffer; lpBuffe
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of tunable variables that affect th
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SPC_OCSPRESULT_CERTIFICATE_VALID =
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* All done. Set the return code bas
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Solution There are essentially thre
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the byte is even, he reduces the nu
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See Also Recipes 11.16, 11.18, 11.1
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11.3 Using the Standard Unix Random
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a pointer to data. Instead, they re
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if (errno = = EINTR) continue; perr
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Here we show how to use this functi
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attacks are a realistic threat, you
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This function never fails (save for
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Using a stream cipher as a generato
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One very safe way to use a cryptogr
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out Buffer into which the random da
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1. Figure out how big a seed you ne
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0x00 Query the amount of entropy be
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strncpy(a.sun_path, EGD_SOCKET_PATH
Page 627 and 628:
} } while (nb = = -1); } } } See Al
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nbytes Number of bytes of entropy t
Page 631 and 632:
See Also • EGADS by Secure Softwa
Page 633 and 634:
If the generator is not seeded with
Page 635 and 636:
Discussion In all cases, you will s
Page 637 and 638:
Solution Because of the way that fl
Page 639 and 640:
double spc_rand_cunifvariate(double
Page 641 and 642:
See Also Recipe 11.11 11.16 Compres
Page 643 and 644:
It would be nice if you did not hav
Page 645 and 646:
For this reason, we think the full
Page 647 and 648:
} int cur_val, i, j, runsz; unsigne
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See Also • NIST Cryptographic Mod
Page 651 and 652:
ecause even if a source does fail c
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you use a seed file, you can just c
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• If you have to accept data from
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with a high-resolution clock (i.e.,
Page 659 and 660:
Collecting entropy from the keyboar
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f[c + 2] = '>'; } else snprintf(bf,
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SpcGatherKeyboardEntropy( ) uses th
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} } if (hWndParent) EnableWindow(hW
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number of bits of entropy has been
Page 669 and 670:
} return TRUE; pDlgData->cbRequeste
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See Also Recipes 11.19, 11.20 11.22
Page 673 and 674:
Discussion We strongly recommend th
Page 675 and 676:
Chapter 12 CHAPTER 12 Anti-Tamperin
Page 677 and 678:
tecture-specific checks to determin
Page 679 and 680:
ure or to examine a hardware valida
Page 681 and 682:
• Detecting modification to a com
Page 683 and 684:
for (j = 8; j > 0; j--) { if (crc &
Page 685 and 686:
#include CRC_START_BLOCK(test) int
Page 687 and 688:
Solution Obfuscating compiled code
Page 689 and 690:
" movl 0f( , %%ebx ), %%eax \n\t" \
Page 691 and 692:
Because library functions are loade
Page 693 and 694:
encoded as a series of 32 Obcode bi
Page 695 and 696:
12.5 Performing Constant Transforms
Page 697 and 698:
12.7 Splitting Variables Problem La
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12.9 Using Function Pointers Proble
Page 701 and 702:
arrays. This array type will hide t
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eak; case SPC_ARRAY_FOLD: index = (
Page 705 and 706:
The following example demonstrates
Page 707 and 708:
Discussion The techniques for hidin
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12.12 Detecting Debuggers Problem S
Page 711 and 712:
Discussion The spc_trap_detect( ) f
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12.14 Detecting Windows Debuggers P
Page 715 and 716:
The int3 interface can also be used
Page 717 and 718:
To demonstrate the effect this macr
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08048388 83 db 83h ; â 08048389 7D
Page 721 and 722:
ine the instruction making the refe
Page 723 and 724:
mprotect(buf, buf_len, PROT_READ |
Page 725 and 726:
eturn 4; } /* get entry point : her
Page 727 and 728:
need to use one of the three ring3
Page 729 and 730:
cates failure, it’s likely that n
Page 731 and 732:
tion gets caught. The only ways to
Page 733 and 734:
memory location will generally stil
Page 735 and 736:
eturn dst; } volatile void *spc_mem
Page 737 and 738:
The mlock( ) system call on Unix im
Page 739 and 740:
Discussion Both C and C++ allow the
Page 741 and 742:
Do not share signal handlers. Sever
Page 743 and 744:
#endif } static int signal_was_caug
Page 745 and 746:
paper reached the widest audience,
Page 747 and 748:
The proper way to handle a program
Page 749 and 750:
handles[0] = cond; handles[1] = mut
Page 751 and 752:
#ifndef WIN32 pool->tids = (pthread
Page 753 and 754:
#define SPC_ACQUIRE_MUTEX(mtx) pthr
Page 755 and 756:
if (socketpool_limit > 0 && socketp
Page 757 and 758:
Table 13-1. Resources that may be l
Page 759 and 760:
ability to run. The default limits
Page 761 and 762:
Note that the structures as present
Page 763 and 764:
access to the machine. This makes i
Page 765:
ing log entries. It is possible, ho
Page 768 and 769:
attacks (continued) capture replay
Page 770 and 771:
CFB (Cipher Feedback) mode, 167, 18
Page 772 and 773:
deriving symmetric keys from a pass
Page 774 and 775:
EVP_CIPHER_CTX_set_padding( ), 227
Page 776 and 777:
integrity checking cipher modes, 16
Page 778 and 779:
message digests (continued) desirab
Page 780 and 781:
parallelizing MACs, 304 parent and
Page 782 and 783:
RAND_bytes( ), 604 RAND_load_file(
Page 784 and 785:
session ID context, 461 session IDs
Page 786 and 787:
spc_gather_keyboard_entropy( ), 631
Page 788 and 789:
symmetric cryptography, 116-154 alg
Page 790 and 791:
Windows (continued) Win 2000, restr
Page 792:
oads. They will often travel up to
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