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There is no way to digitally verify the authenticity of a self-signed certificate because the issuer and the subject are the same, which is why it has become common practice to provide these certificates with the software that uses them. When self-signed certificates are included with an application, the software author generally obtains them by some physical means. For example, Thawte (now a part of VeriSign) provides its root certificates on its web site, free and clear, but strongly advises anyone making use of them to confirm the certificate fingerprints with Thawte via telephone before using or distributing them. To verify the authenticity and validity of a given certificate, each certificate in the chain must also be verified, from the issuer of the certificate all the way up to the root certificate. If any certificate in the chain is invalid, each certificate below it in the chain must also be considered invalid. Invalid certificates typically have either expired or been revoked (perhaps due to certificate theft). A certificate is also most certainly considered invalid if it has been tampered with or if the signatures on the certificate do not match the ones that should have been used to sign it, indicating that an attacker has tampered with the contents. The decision about whether to employ a certificate hierarchy more complex than a single root CA depends on many factors. These factors and their trade-offs are well beyond the scope of this book. Entire books have been devoted to PKI, and we strongly recommend that you consult one or more of them to assist you in making an informed decision. Again, we strongly recommend Planning for PKI, cited at the beginning of this recipe. X.509 certificates The most widely accepted format for certificates is the X.509 format, first introduced in 1988. There are three versions of the format: X.509v1, X.509v2, and X.509v3. The most recent revision to the standard was introduced in 1996, and most, if not all, modern software now supports it. A large number of changes were made between X.509v1 and X.509v3, but perhaps the most significant feature introduced in the X.509v3 standard is its support for extensions. Version 3 extensions allow a certificate to contain additional fields beyond those defined by previous versions of the X.509 standard. The additional fields may be standard in X.509v3, such as the basicConstraints or keyUsage extensions, or they may be completely nonstandard, perhaps recognized by only a single application. Each extension has a name for its field, a designation indicating whether the extension is critical or not, and a value to be associated with the extension field. When an extension is designated as being critical, software that does not recognize the extension must reject the certificate as being invalid. If the extension is noncritical and unknown to the certificate user, it may be ignored. The X.509v3 standard defines numerous extensions in an effort to consolidate the more frequently appearing extensions implemented by third parties. One such exam- 512 | Chapter 10: Public Key Infrastructure This is the Title of the Book, eMatter Edition Copyright © 2007 O’Reilly & Associates, Inc. All rights reserved.
ple is the permissible uses for a certificate—for example, whether a certificate is allowed to sign another certificate or is usable in an SSLserver. If each application were to create its own disparate extensions, the information in those extensions either would be unusable by other applications or would significantly complicate the process of validating a certificate because it would need to recognize a virtually unlimited number of different extensions that all mean essentially the same thing. Of the standard extensions defined by X.509v3, there are only four that are well supported and in widespread use. Only one of them must be designated critical according to the standard, while the other three may or may not be. For now, we will not delve into the details of the X.509 format, but in Recipes 10.4 through 10.7 we will discuss what you need to know to properly validate a certificate. See Also • Planning for PKI: Best Practices Guide for Deploying Public Key Infrastructure by Russ Housley and Tim Polk (John Wiley & Sons) • Network Security with OpenSSL by John Viega, Matt Messier, and Pravir Chandra (O’Reilly & Associates) • RFC 3280: Internet X.509 Public Key Infrastructure Certificate and Certificate Revocation List (CRL) Profile • RFC 2560: Online Certificate Status Protocol • Recipes 7.1, 10.4, 10.5, 10.6, 10.7, 10.12 10.2 Obtaining a Certificate <strong>Problem</strong> You want an established PKI to issue a certificate to you. Solution Contact the CA that you wish to use. In this recipe, we focus on how to deal with VeriSign, which is the most popular CA. VeriSign sells several kinds of certificates from their web page (http://www.verisign.com). In Recipe 10.3, we enumerate other CAs that have their root certificates in the popular browsers and thus are worthwhile to consider as alternatives. Discussion Before obtaining a certificate, you first need to determine what purpose the certificate will serve. There are many different types of certificates offered by a variety of This is the Title of the Book, eMatter Edition Copyright © 2007 O’Reilly & Associates, Inc. All rights reserved. Obtaining a Certificate | 513
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Secure Programming Cookbook ΤΜ fo
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Secure Programming CookbookΤΜ for
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Table of Contents Foreword . . . .
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5.8 Using a Generic OFB Mode Implem
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8.10 Performing Password-Based Auth
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12.10 Restructuring Arrays 672 12.1
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they are in the top 50% of safe dri
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think you are in, you will probably
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the C programming language, with so
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igger risks than anticipated. You s
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Recipe Compatibility Most of the re
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The O’Reilly web site for the boo
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Chapter 1 CHAPTER 1 Safe Initializa
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using the code in this recipe on Wi
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variables you preserve, be sure to
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ptr = (char *)new_environ + (arr_si
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an impersonation token for a thread
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Creating a new process with a restr
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array that is the Privileges field.
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eturn 0; } if (!LookupAccountName(0
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privileges. We strongly advise agai
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#include #include #include #incl
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sockets provide a means by which fi
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The privman library provides a numb
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The potential for security vulnerab
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It’s important to remember that t
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Discussion execve( ) is the system
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should call pclose( ) to clean up t
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dup2(stdout_pipe[1], 1); close(stdo
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lpCommandLine Any command-line argu
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#include #include #include void
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and a saved user ID. * The effectiv
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See Also Recipes 1.3, 1.4, 2.8 2.2
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of the object, regardless of what t
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There are many other situations whe
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if (!(fd = opendir("."))) break; if
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spc_file_wipe( ) A wrapper around t
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if (pattern_pass(fd, buf, sizeof(bu
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CryptReleaseContext(hProvider, 0);
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2.7 Restricting Access Permissions
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eset the umask between your adjustm
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Locking files on Windows Where Unix
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NFS older than Version 3 in particu
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a loop until all the data is read.
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if (!(hResourceLock = CreateMutex(0
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generator. The code presented here
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access to the filesystem, the poten
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Chapter 3 CHAPTER 3 Input Validatio
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components of the system are truste
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try to use them. For example, what
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To combat malicious uses of “%n
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Discussion Buffer overflows get a l
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Unfortunately, strlcpy( ) and strlc
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The second problem area occurs when
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(see Recipe 3.2). The format-string
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safestr_release( ) or safestr_free(
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Solution Unfortunately, integer coe
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which the records begin. Generally,
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pointer or a different value altoge
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if (!(new_environ = (char **)malloc
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if (spc_environ) free(environ); env
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GetFullPathName( ) requires the len
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if (*c != '%' || !isxdigit(c[1]) ||
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3.10 Preventing Cross-Site Scriptin
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* These are HTML tags that do not t
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*ptr++ = *c; } while (*++c != ’>
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Finally, if you are using the LIKE
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Table 3-2. UTF-8 encoding byte sequ
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the connections to the server. The
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SPC_FD_SET read_mask; for (;;) { sp
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To ensure that you choose the right
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See Also Recipe 13.2 4.2 Generating
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This function takes the following a
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} break; default: if (isspace(p[0])
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*p = 0; return output; } } } The pu
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} return result; case -1: if (stric
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#define MAX_WORDLEN 4 /* len parame
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Discussion This function spc_words2
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4.9 Using Salts, Nonces, and Initia
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the lifetime of the key; the counte
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#include #include #include #incl
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#include #include /* This value n
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} CryptReleaseContext(hProvider, hK
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cryptographic one-way hash from a t
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HMAC_CTX c; unsigned long ctr = 0,
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database does not support binary st
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Remember to use a MAC anytime you e
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For many different reasons, it can
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A more portable but less accurate w
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Chapter 5 CHAPTER 5 Symmetric Encry
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Discussion Be sure to read this dis
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Pentium III, which should give a go
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locations where 40-bit keys or 56-b
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can arise. For general-purpose use,
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or similar mechanism is used. As wi
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shares many properties with CTR mod
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case, the faster of the two algorit
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parison to standard modes. As of th
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work, which severely limits portabi
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Table 5-4. Implementations for the
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Plaintext block 1 Plaintext block 2
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typedef struct { SPC_KEY_SCHED ks;
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If you are using padding and you kn
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This function has the following arg
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if (ol) *ol = out - start; return 1
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that the state function is always r
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Note that this code depends on the
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if (!il--) return 1; ctx->nonce[ctx
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one block at a time, by encrypting
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spc_memset(key,0, kl); memcpy(ctx->
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5.9 Using a Generic CTR Mode Implem
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These two functions also erase the
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we ignore that because it will alwa
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Once those bindings are made, the Z
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output Buffer into which the plaint
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eturn the number of valid bytes in
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In CBC, CFB, and OFB modes, encrypt
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void spc_pctr_do_odd(SPC_CTR2_CTX *
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5.15 Performing File or Disk Encryp
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Therefore, we’ll show you LION, b
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} RC4_set_key(&k, HASH_SZ, (char *)
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techniques from Chapter 8), the key
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communicate asynchronously (that is
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key Pointer to the encryption key t
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Table 5-6. Cipher instantiation ref
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While RC2, RC4, and RC5 support abs
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The function EVP_CIPHER_CTX_ctrl( )
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Discussion As a reminder, use a raw
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ol = 0; if (!(ret = (char *)malloc(
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The “official” RC4 key setup fu
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Discussion One-time pads are provab
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Once a provider context has been su
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Table 5-8. Symmetric ciphers suppor
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hKey Key to use for performing the
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if (!CryptAcquireContext(&hProvider
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exportable from key objects, but th
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Chapter 6 CHAPTER 6 Hashes and Mess
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Generally, you should prefer an enc
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See Also Recipes 6.7, 6.8, 6.12 6.2
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Noncorrelation It should also be co
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Let’s look briefly at the pros an
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Solution In most cases, instead of
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MAC (which we recommend), we strong
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Libraries with cryptographic hash f
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#include int main(int argc, char *
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See Also Implementations of SHA-256
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CryptAcquireContext(&hProvider, 0,
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To ensure the best security, we str
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if (!(vfy = (unsigned char *)malloc
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you might use a library such as Ope
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Otherwise, you can use the HMAC imp
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if (klen inner[i] ^= key[i]; ctx->o
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OMAC has been explicitly specified
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unsigned char c1[SPC_BLOCK_SZ]; /*
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ing the all-zero data block. Each p
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CMAC is the message-integrity compo
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To postprocess, we encrypt the hash
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6.15 Constructing a Hash Function f
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unsigned char b[SPC_KEY_SZ]; size_t
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Figure 6-2. The Mayas-Meyer-Oseas c
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c->ix = 0; c->tl = 0; } static void
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modes such as CWC and CCM are start
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authentication in a straightforward
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SPC_HMAC_Reset(&ctx); SPC_HMAC_Upda
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divide up the data stream between t
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Chapter 7 CHAPTER 7 Public Key Cryp
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The code presented in this chapter
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Because public key encryption is so
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Solution There’s some debate on t
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7.4 Manipulating Big Numbers Proble
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There’s a similar function for as
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Additionally, you can ask for a ran
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In addition, you might wish to test
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Table 7-2. Math operations supporte
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313, 317, 331, 337, 347, 349, 353,
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for (b = 0; !BN_is_odd(x); b++) BN_
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BIGNUM *dP, *dQ, *qInv; } RSA_PRIVA
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This would map to the hexadecimal v
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compute d. Without those two primes
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The constants that may be used to s
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When using OpenSSL, decryption can
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ecommend using it, unless you are c
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ture is valid. A successful check w
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et = RSA_verify(NID_sha1, hash, 20,
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#define MIN(x,y) ((x) > (y) ? (y) :
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memcpy(signedtext, decrypt, 16); if
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h_ret Optional argument that, if no
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siglen The number of bytes written
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data ready to go into the certifica
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ut it requires you to pass in the l
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LjKQ2r1Yt9foxbHdLKZeClqZuzN7PoEmy+b
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ing in data, pass in a pointer to a
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Table 7-6 lists the FILE object-bas
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Solution The correct method depends
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Use across applications For some pe
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key agreement protocol, where both
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consider slightly more sophisticate
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Kerberos does assume that the envir
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The function used to look up user i
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The group structure that is returne
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found, NULL will be returned, and G
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ReferencedDomainName = (LPTSTR)Loca
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if (errno != EINTR && errno != EAGA
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if (!(spc_host_rulecount % 256)) {
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} else { if (inet_addr(tmp) = = INA
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8.5 Generating Random Passwords and
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for this list is not insignificant.
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file, it may allocate a sizable amo
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On Windows, you can use the standar
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Once getpass( ) or readpassphrase(
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ters typed by the user. Instead, th
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compute the future time at which th
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decrypt the encrypted data. To make
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On systems that support MCF through
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for (i = 0; i < 1000; i++) { MD5_In
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CryptHashData(hHash1, lpszKey, dwKe
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Solution Use the PBKDF2 method of c
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Verifying a password encrypted usin
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c Pointer to an integer that will r
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each of these pieces of information
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server-side part of the authenticat
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8.14 Authenticating with HTTP Cooki
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char *spc_cookie_encode(char *cooki
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• Let the salt be public, in whic
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extra Additional application-specif
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xl Pointer into which the length of
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With a valid socket descriptor in h
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11. The client and the server compu
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Some people like to use a fixed mod
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Often, you’ll want to generate a
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Discussion Remember, authentication
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• Provide the user with some way
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if (!fgets(answer, sizeof(answer),
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uffer = (char *)realloc(buffer, buf
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compromise. If our system has such
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When using RSA, if you’re doing o
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see the confirmation request and th
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Upon receipt of a response to a con
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BOOL SpcConfirmationCreate(LPCTSTR
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Additionally, over time, SSPI-speci
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if (!spc_verify_cert_hostname(SSL_g
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The next step is to call spc_accept
Page 489 and 490: Discussion Session caching is norma
Page 491 and 492: if (BIO_do_connect(conn)
Page 493 and 494: The next step is to connect to the
Page 495 and 496: DWORD dwHeadersLength = 0; LPSTR lp
Page 497 and 498: attempt to develop and debug SSL-en
Page 499 and 500: API for encryption and decryption,
Page 501 and 502: memcpy(in_data.data, inbuf, inlen);
Page 503 and 504: *outlen = out_data.length - (blksz
Page 505 and 506: so. Likewise, any process with the
Page 507 and 508: struct sockaddr_un *addr_unix; *dom
Page 509 and 510: error_exit: if (sock) spc_socket_cl
Page 511 and 512: different ways. On FreeBSD systems,
Page 513 and 514: msg.msg_iov->iov_base = (void *)&sy
Page 515 and 516: it’s unique and unpredictable! Yo
Page 517 and 518: if (mysql_real_connect(mysql, host,
Page 519 and 520: maintenance. Adding or removing ser
Page 521 and 522: ut they shouldn’t tolerate reorde
Page 523 and 524: #define SPC_CLIENT_DISTINGUISHER 0x
Page 525 and 526: } static void spc_ssock_write( int
Page 527 and 528: while (mlen) { if ((r = read(fd, ms
Page 529 and 530: In such cases, you need to be able
Page 531 and 532: Discussion One of the big motivator
Page 533 and 534: A digital certificate contains info
Page 535 and 536: Certificate revocation What happens
Page 537 and 538: cate as long as it still has its pr
Page 539: Currently, OCSP is not nearly as wi
Page 543 and 544: automated email to the address you
Page 545 and 546: The type of code-signing certificat
Page 547 and 548: 10.3 Using Root Certificates Proble
Page 549 and 550: Table 10-1. CA certificates, their
Page 551 and 552: ights of the entity tied to that ce
Page 553 and 554: 10.5 Performing X.509 Certificate V
Page 555 and 556: sk_X509_free(spc_store->crls); sk_X
Page 557 and 558: X509_LOOKUP *lookup; store = X509_S
Page 559 and 560: CertGetIssuerCertificateFromStore(
Page 561 and 562: HCERTSTORE hCertStore; PCCERT_CONTE
Page 563 and 564: See Also Recipe 10.11 10.7 Verifyin
Page 565 and 566: SPC_X509STORE_SSL_VERIFY_NONE This
Page 567 and 568: verify_flags |= SSL_VERIFY_FAIL_IF_
Page 569 and 570: int spc_verify_cert_hostname(X509 *
Page 571 and 572: for (i = 0; !bResult && i < pNameIn
Page 573 and 574: only work you really need to do is
Page 575 and 576: digest = EVP_sha1( ); fingerprint_l
Page 577 and 578: if (cert && (uri = get_distribution
Page 579 and 580: "\xb3\x9c\x25\xb1\xc3\x2e\x32\x53\x
Page 581 and 582: headerlen -= (*datalen + 2); if (*d
Page 583 and 584: In this recipe, we have used a numb
Page 585 and 586: { "\x8d\x26\xff\x2f\x31\x6d\x59x\29
Page 587 and 588: LocalFree(pvStructInfo); return 0;
Page 589 and 590: lpFullBuffer = lpNewBuffer; lpBuffe
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of tunable variables that affect th
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SPC_OCSPRESULT_CERTIFICATE_VALID =
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* All done. Set the return code bas
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Solution There are essentially thre
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the byte is even, he reduces the nu
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See Also Recipes 11.16, 11.18, 11.1
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11.3 Using the Standard Unix Random
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a pointer to data. Instead, they re
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if (errno = = EINTR) continue; perr
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Here we show how to use this functi
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attacks are a realistic threat, you
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This function never fails (save for
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Using a stream cipher as a generato
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One very safe way to use a cryptogr
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out Buffer into which the random da
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1. Figure out how big a seed you ne
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0x00 Query the amount of entropy be
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strncpy(a.sun_path, EGD_SOCKET_PATH
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} } while (nb = = -1); } } } See Al
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nbytes Number of bytes of entropy t
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See Also • EGADS by Secure Softwa
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If the generator is not seeded with
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Discussion In all cases, you will s
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Solution Because of the way that fl
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double spc_rand_cunifvariate(double
Page 641 and 642:
See Also Recipe 11.11 11.16 Compres
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It would be nice if you did not hav
Page 645 and 646:
For this reason, we think the full
Page 647 and 648:
} int cur_val, i, j, runsz; unsigne
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See Also • NIST Cryptographic Mod
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ecause even if a source does fail c
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you use a seed file, you can just c
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• If you have to accept data from
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with a high-resolution clock (i.e.,
Page 659 and 660:
Collecting entropy from the keyboar
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f[c + 2] = '>'; } else snprintf(bf,
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SpcGatherKeyboardEntropy( ) uses th
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} } if (hWndParent) EnableWindow(hW
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number of bits of entropy has been
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} return TRUE; pDlgData->cbRequeste
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See Also Recipes 11.19, 11.20 11.22
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Discussion We strongly recommend th
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Chapter 12 CHAPTER 12 Anti-Tamperin
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tecture-specific checks to determin
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ure or to examine a hardware valida
Page 681 and 682:
• Detecting modification to a com
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for (j = 8; j > 0; j--) { if (crc &
Page 685 and 686:
#include CRC_START_BLOCK(test) int
Page 687 and 688:
Solution Obfuscating compiled code
Page 689 and 690:
" movl 0f( , %%ebx ), %%eax \n\t" \
Page 691 and 692:
Because library functions are loade
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encoded as a series of 32 Obcode bi
Page 695 and 696:
12.5 Performing Constant Transforms
Page 697 and 698:
12.7 Splitting Variables Problem La
Page 699 and 700:
12.9 Using Function Pointers Proble
Page 701 and 702:
arrays. This array type will hide t
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eak; case SPC_ARRAY_FOLD: index = (
Page 705 and 706:
The following example demonstrates
Page 707 and 708:
Discussion The techniques for hidin
Page 709 and 710:
12.12 Detecting Debuggers Problem S
Page 711 and 712:
Discussion The spc_trap_detect( ) f
Page 713 and 714:
12.14 Detecting Windows Debuggers P
Page 715 and 716:
The int3 interface can also be used
Page 717 and 718:
To demonstrate the effect this macr
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08048388 83 db 83h ; â 08048389 7D
Page 721 and 722:
ine the instruction making the refe
Page 723 and 724:
mprotect(buf, buf_len, PROT_READ |
Page 725 and 726:
eturn 4; } /* get entry point : her
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need to use one of the three ring3
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cates failure, it’s likely that n
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tion gets caught. The only ways to
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memory location will generally stil
Page 735 and 736:
eturn dst; } volatile void *spc_mem
Page 737 and 738:
The mlock( ) system call on Unix im
Page 739 and 740:
Discussion Both C and C++ allow the
Page 741 and 742:
Do not share signal handlers. Sever
Page 743 and 744:
#endif } static int signal_was_caug
Page 745 and 746:
paper reached the widest audience,
Page 747 and 748:
The proper way to handle a program
Page 749 and 750:
handles[0] = cond; handles[1] = mut
Page 751 and 752:
#ifndef WIN32 pool->tids = (pthread
Page 753 and 754:
#define SPC_ACQUIRE_MUTEX(mtx) pthr
Page 755 and 756:
if (socketpool_limit > 0 && socketp
Page 757 and 758:
Table 13-1. Resources that may be l
Page 759 and 760:
ability to run. The default limits
Page 761 and 762:
Note that the structures as present
Page 763 and 764:
access to the machine. This makes i
Page 765:
ing log entries. It is possible, ho
Page 768 and 769:
attacks (continued) capture replay
Page 770 and 771:
CFB (Cipher Feedback) mode, 167, 18
Page 772 and 773:
deriving symmetric keys from a pass
Page 774 and 775:
EVP_CIPHER_CTX_set_padding( ), 227
Page 776 and 777:
integrity checking cipher modes, 16
Page 778 and 779:
message digests (continued) desirab
Page 780 and 781:
parallelizing MACs, 304 parent and
Page 782 and 783:
RAND_bytes( ), 604 RAND_load_file(
Page 784 and 785:
session ID context, 461 session IDs
Page 786 and 787:
spc_gather_keyboard_entropy( ), 631
Page 788 and 789:
symmetric cryptography, 116-154 alg
Page 790 and 791:
Windows (continued) Win 2000, restr
Page 792:
oads. They will often travel up to
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