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Chapter CHAPTER 2 2 Access Control Access control is a major issue for application developers. An application must always be sure to protect its resources from unauthorized access. This requires properly setting permissions on created files, allowing only authorized hosts to connect to any network ports, and properly handling privilege elevation and surrendering. Applications must also defend against race conditions that may occur when opening files—for example, the Time of Check, Time of Use (TOCTOU) condition. The proper approach to access control is a consistent, careful use of all APIs that access external resources. You must minimize the time a program runs with privileges and perform only the bare minimum of operations at a privileged level. When sensitive data is involved, it is your application’s duty to protect the user’s data from unauthorized access; keep this in mind during all stages of development. 2.1 Understanding the Unix Access Control Model <strong>Problem</strong> You want to understand how access control works on Unix systems. Solution Unix traditionally uses a user ID–based access control system. Some newer variants implement additional access control mechanisms, such as Linux’s implementation of POSIX capabilities. Because additional access control mechanisms vary greatly from system to system, we will discuss only the basic user ID system in this recipe. Discussion Every process running on a Unix system has a user ID assigned to it. In reality, every process actually has three user IDs assigned to it: an effective user ID, a real user ID, 38 This is the Title of the Book, eMatter Edition Copyright © 2007 O’Reilly & Associates, Inc. All rights reserved.
and a saved user ID. * The effective user ID is the user ID used for most permission checks. The real user and saved user IDs are used primarily for determining whether a process can legally change its effective user ID (see Recipe 1.3). In addition to user IDs, each process also has a group ID. As with user IDs, there are actually three group IDs: an effective group ID, a real group ID, and a saved group ID. Processes may belong to more than a single group. The operating system maintains a list of groups to which a process belongs for each process. Group-based permission checks check the effective group ID as well as the process’s group list. The operating system performs a series of tests to determine whether a process has permission to access a particular file on the filesystem or some other resource (such as a semaphore or shared memory segment). By far, the most common permission check performed is for file access. When a process creates a file or some other resource, the operating system assigns a user ID and a group ID as the owner of the file or resource. The user ID is assigned the process’s effective user ID, and the group ID is assigned the process’s effective group ID. To define the accessibility of a file or resource, each file or resource has three sets of three permission bits assigned to it. For the owning user, the owning group, and everyone else (often referred to as “world” or “other”), read, write, and execute permissions are stored. If the process attempting to access a file or resource shares its effective user ID with the owning user ID of the file or resource, the first set of permission bits is used. If the process shares its effective group ID with the owning group ID of the file or resource, the second set of permission bits is used. In addition, if the file or resource’s group owner is in the process’s group membership list, the second set of permission bits is used. If neither the user ID nor the group ID match, the third set of bits is used. User ownership always trumps group ownership. Files also have an additional set of bits: the sticky bit, the setuid bit, and the setgid bit. The sticky and setgid bits are defined for directories; the setuid and setgid bits are defined for executable files; and all three bits are ignored for any other type of file. In no case are all three bits defined to have meaning for a single type of file. The sticky bit Under normal circumstances, a user may delete or rename any file in a directory that the user owns, regardless of whether the user owns the file. Applying the sticky bit to a directory alters this behavior such that a user may only delete or rename files in the directory if the user owns the file and additionally has write permission in the direc- * Saved user IDs may not be available on some very old Unix platforms, but are available on all modern Unixes. Understanding the Unix Access Control Model | 39 This is the Title of the Book, eMatter Edition Copyright © 2007 O’Reilly & Associates, Inc. All rights reserved.
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Secure Programming Cookbook ΤΜ fo
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Secure Programming CookbookΤΜ for
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Table of Contents Foreword . . . .
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5.8 Using a Generic OFB Mode Implem
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8.10 Performing Password-Based Auth
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12.10 Restructuring Arrays 672 12.1
Page 16 and 17: they are in the top 50% of safe dri
Page 18 and 19: think you are in, you will probably
Page 20 and 21: the C programming language, with so
Page 22 and 23: igger risks than anticipated. You s
Page 24 and 25: Recipe Compatibility Most of the re
Page 26 and 27: The O’Reilly web site for the boo
Page 29 and 30: Chapter 1 CHAPTER 1 Safe Initializa
Page 31 and 32: using the code in this recipe on Wi
Page 33 and 34: variables you preserve, be sure to
Page 35 and 36: ptr = (char *)new_environ + (arr_si
Page 37 and 38: an impersonation token for a thread
Page 39 and 40: Creating a new process with a restr
Page 41 and 42: array that is the Privileges field.
Page 43 and 44: eturn 0; } if (!LookupAccountName(0
Page 45 and 46: privileges. We strongly advise agai
Page 47 and 48: #include #include #include #incl
Page 49 and 50: sockets provide a means by which fi
Page 51 and 52: The privman library provides a numb
Page 53 and 54: The potential for security vulnerab
Page 55 and 56: It’s important to remember that t
Page 57 and 58: Discussion execve( ) is the system
Page 59 and 60: should call pclose( ) to clean up t
Page 61 and 62: dup2(stdout_pipe[1], 1); close(stdo
Page 63 and 64: lpCommandLine Any command-line argu
Page 65: #include #include #include void
Page 69 and 70: See Also Recipes 1.3, 1.4, 2.8 2.2
Page 71 and 72: of the object, regardless of what t
Page 73 and 74: There are many other situations whe
Page 75 and 76: if (!(fd = opendir("."))) break; if
Page 77 and 78: spc_file_wipe( ) A wrapper around t
Page 79 and 80: if (pattern_pass(fd, buf, sizeof(bu
Page 81 and 82: CryptReleaseContext(hProvider, 0);
Page 83 and 84: 2.7 Restricting Access Permissions
Page 85 and 86: eset the umask between your adjustm
Page 87 and 88: Locking files on Windows Where Unix
Page 89 and 90: NFS older than Version 3 in particu
Page 91 and 92: a loop until all the data is read.
Page 93 and 94: if (!(hResourceLock = CreateMutex(0
Page 95 and 96: generator. The code presented here
Page 97 and 98: access to the filesystem, the poten
Page 99 and 100: Chapter 3 CHAPTER 3 Input Validatio
Page 101 and 102: components of the system are truste
Page 103 and 104: try to use them. For example, what
Page 105 and 106: To combat malicious uses of “%n
Page 107 and 108: Discussion Buffer overflows get a l
Page 109 and 110: Unfortunately, strlcpy( ) and strlc
Page 111 and 112: The second problem area occurs when
Page 113 and 114: (see Recipe 3.2). The format-string
Page 115 and 116: safestr_release( ) or safestr_free(
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Solution Unfortunately, integer coe
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which the records begin. Generally,
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pointer or a different value altoge
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if (!(new_environ = (char **)malloc
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if (spc_environ) free(environ); env
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GetFullPathName( ) requires the len
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if (*c != '%' || !isxdigit(c[1]) ||
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3.10 Preventing Cross-Site Scriptin
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* These are HTML tags that do not t
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*ptr++ = *c; } while (*++c != ’>
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Finally, if you are using the LIKE
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Table 3-2. UTF-8 encoding byte sequ
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the connections to the server. The
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SPC_FD_SET read_mask; for (;;) { sp
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To ensure that you choose the right
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See Also Recipe 13.2 4.2 Generating
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This function takes the following a
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} break; default: if (isspace(p[0])
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*p = 0; return output; } } } The pu
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} return result; case -1: if (stric
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#define MAX_WORDLEN 4 /* len parame
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Discussion This function spc_words2
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4.9 Using Salts, Nonces, and Initia
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the lifetime of the key; the counte
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#include #include #include #incl
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#include #include /* This value n
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} CryptReleaseContext(hProvider, hK
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cryptographic one-way hash from a t
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HMAC_CTX c; unsigned long ctr = 0,
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database does not support binary st
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Remember to use a MAC anytime you e
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For many different reasons, it can
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A more portable but less accurate w
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Chapter 5 CHAPTER 5 Symmetric Encry
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Discussion Be sure to read this dis
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Pentium III, which should give a go
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locations where 40-bit keys or 56-b
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can arise. For general-purpose use,
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or similar mechanism is used. As wi
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shares many properties with CTR mod
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case, the faster of the two algorit
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parison to standard modes. As of th
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work, which severely limits portabi
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Table 5-4. Implementations for the
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Plaintext block 1 Plaintext block 2
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typedef struct { SPC_KEY_SCHED ks;
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If you are using padding and you kn
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This function has the following arg
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if (ol) *ol = out - start; return 1
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that the state function is always r
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Note that this code depends on the
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if (!il--) return 1; ctx->nonce[ctx
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one block at a time, by encrypting
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spc_memset(key,0, kl); memcpy(ctx->
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5.9 Using a Generic CTR Mode Implem
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These two functions also erase the
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we ignore that because it will alwa
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Once those bindings are made, the Z
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output Buffer into which the plaint
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eturn the number of valid bytes in
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In CBC, CFB, and OFB modes, encrypt
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void spc_pctr_do_odd(SPC_CTR2_CTX *
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5.15 Performing File or Disk Encryp
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Therefore, we’ll show you LION, b
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} RC4_set_key(&k, HASH_SZ, (char *)
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techniques from Chapter 8), the key
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communicate asynchronously (that is
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key Pointer to the encryption key t
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Table 5-6. Cipher instantiation ref
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While RC2, RC4, and RC5 support abs
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The function EVP_CIPHER_CTX_ctrl( )
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Discussion As a reminder, use a raw
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ol = 0; if (!(ret = (char *)malloc(
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The “official” RC4 key setup fu
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Discussion One-time pads are provab
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Once a provider context has been su
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Table 5-8. Symmetric ciphers suppor
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hKey Key to use for performing the
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if (!CryptAcquireContext(&hProvider
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exportable from key objects, but th
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Chapter 6 CHAPTER 6 Hashes and Mess
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Generally, you should prefer an enc
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See Also Recipes 6.7, 6.8, 6.12 6.2
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Noncorrelation It should also be co
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Let’s look briefly at the pros an
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Solution In most cases, instead of
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MAC (which we recommend), we strong
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Libraries with cryptographic hash f
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#include int main(int argc, char *
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See Also Implementations of SHA-256
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CryptAcquireContext(&hProvider, 0,
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To ensure the best security, we str
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if (!(vfy = (unsigned char *)malloc
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you might use a library such as Ope
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Otherwise, you can use the HMAC imp
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if (klen inner[i] ^= key[i]; ctx->o
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OMAC has been explicitly specified
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unsigned char c1[SPC_BLOCK_SZ]; /*
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ing the all-zero data block. Each p
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CMAC is the message-integrity compo
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To postprocess, we encrypt the hash
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6.15 Constructing a Hash Function f
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unsigned char b[SPC_KEY_SZ]; size_t
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Figure 6-2. The Mayas-Meyer-Oseas c
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c->ix = 0; c->tl = 0; } static void
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modes such as CWC and CCM are start
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authentication in a straightforward
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SPC_HMAC_Reset(&ctx); SPC_HMAC_Upda
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divide up the data stream between t
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Chapter 7 CHAPTER 7 Public Key Cryp
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The code presented in this chapter
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Because public key encryption is so
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Solution There’s some debate on t
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7.4 Manipulating Big Numbers Proble
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There’s a similar function for as
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Additionally, you can ask for a ran
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In addition, you might wish to test
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Table 7-2. Math operations supporte
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313, 317, 331, 337, 347, 349, 353,
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for (b = 0; !BN_is_odd(x); b++) BN_
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BIGNUM *dP, *dQ, *qInv; } RSA_PRIVA
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This would map to the hexadecimal v
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compute d. Without those two primes
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The constants that may be used to s
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When using OpenSSL, decryption can
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ecommend using it, unless you are c
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ture is valid. A successful check w
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et = RSA_verify(NID_sha1, hash, 20,
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#define MIN(x,y) ((x) > (y) ? (y) :
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memcpy(signedtext, decrypt, 16); if
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h_ret Optional argument that, if no
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siglen The number of bytes written
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data ready to go into the certifica
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ut it requires you to pass in the l
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LjKQ2r1Yt9foxbHdLKZeClqZuzN7PoEmy+b
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ing in data, pass in a pointer to a
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Table 7-6 lists the FILE object-bas
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Solution The correct method depends
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Use across applications For some pe
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key agreement protocol, where both
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consider slightly more sophisticate
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Kerberos does assume that the envir
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The function used to look up user i
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The group structure that is returne
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found, NULL will be returned, and G
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ReferencedDomainName = (LPTSTR)Loca
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if (errno != EINTR && errno != EAGA
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if (!(spc_host_rulecount % 256)) {
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} else { if (inet_addr(tmp) = = INA
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8.5 Generating Random Passwords and
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for this list is not insignificant.
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file, it may allocate a sizable amo
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On Windows, you can use the standar
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Once getpass( ) or readpassphrase(
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ters typed by the user. Instead, th
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compute the future time at which th
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decrypt the encrypted data. To make
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On systems that support MCF through
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for (i = 0; i < 1000; i++) { MD5_In
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CryptHashData(hHash1, lpszKey, dwKe
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Solution Use the PBKDF2 method of c
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Verifying a password encrypted usin
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c Pointer to an integer that will r
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each of these pieces of information
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server-side part of the authenticat
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8.14 Authenticating with HTTP Cooki
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char *spc_cookie_encode(char *cooki
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• Let the salt be public, in whic
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extra Additional application-specif
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xl Pointer into which the length of
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With a valid socket descriptor in h
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11. The client and the server compu
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Some people like to use a fixed mod
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Often, you’ll want to generate a
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Discussion Remember, authentication
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• Provide the user with some way
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if (!fgets(answer, sizeof(answer),
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uffer = (char *)realloc(buffer, buf
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compromise. If our system has such
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When using RSA, if you’re doing o
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see the confirmation request and th
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Upon receipt of a response to a con
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BOOL SpcConfirmationCreate(LPCTSTR
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Additionally, over time, SSPI-speci
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if (!spc_verify_cert_hostname(SSL_g
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The next step is to call spc_accept
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Discussion Session caching is norma
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if (BIO_do_connect(conn)
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The next step is to connect to the
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DWORD dwHeadersLength = 0; LPSTR lp
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attempt to develop and debug SSL-en
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API for encryption and decryption,
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memcpy(in_data.data, inbuf, inlen);
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*outlen = out_data.length - (blksz
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so. Likewise, any process with the
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struct sockaddr_un *addr_unix; *dom
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error_exit: if (sock) spc_socket_cl
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different ways. On FreeBSD systems,
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msg.msg_iov->iov_base = (void *)&sy
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it’s unique and unpredictable! Yo
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if (mysql_real_connect(mysql, host,
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maintenance. Adding or removing ser
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ut they shouldn’t tolerate reorde
Page 523 and 524:
#define SPC_CLIENT_DISTINGUISHER 0x
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} static void spc_ssock_write( int
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while (mlen) { if ((r = read(fd, ms
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In such cases, you need to be able
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Discussion One of the big motivator
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A digital certificate contains info
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Certificate revocation What happens
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cate as long as it still has its pr
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Currently, OCSP is not nearly as wi
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ple is the permissible uses for a c
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automated email to the address you
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The type of code-signing certificat
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10.3 Using Root Certificates Proble
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Table 10-1. CA certificates, their
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ights of the entity tied to that ce
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10.5 Performing X.509 Certificate V
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sk_X509_free(spc_store->crls); sk_X
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X509_LOOKUP *lookup; store = X509_S
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CertGetIssuerCertificateFromStore(
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HCERTSTORE hCertStore; PCCERT_CONTE
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See Also Recipe 10.11 10.7 Verifyin
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SPC_X509STORE_SSL_VERIFY_NONE This
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verify_flags |= SSL_VERIFY_FAIL_IF_
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int spc_verify_cert_hostname(X509 *
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for (i = 0; !bResult && i < pNameIn
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only work you really need to do is
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digest = EVP_sha1( ); fingerprint_l
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if (cert && (uri = get_distribution
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"\xb3\x9c\x25\xb1\xc3\x2e\x32\x53\x
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headerlen -= (*datalen + 2); if (*d
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In this recipe, we have used a numb
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{ "\x8d\x26\xff\x2f\x31\x6d\x59x\29
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LocalFree(pvStructInfo); return 0;
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lpFullBuffer = lpNewBuffer; lpBuffe
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of tunable variables that affect th
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SPC_OCSPRESULT_CERTIFICATE_VALID =
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* All done. Set the return code bas
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Solution There are essentially thre
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the byte is even, he reduces the nu
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See Also Recipes 11.16, 11.18, 11.1
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11.3 Using the Standard Unix Random
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a pointer to data. Instead, they re
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if (errno = = EINTR) continue; perr
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Here we show how to use this functi
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attacks are a realistic threat, you
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This function never fails (save for
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Using a stream cipher as a generato
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One very safe way to use a cryptogr
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out Buffer into which the random da
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1. Figure out how big a seed you ne
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0x00 Query the amount of entropy be
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strncpy(a.sun_path, EGD_SOCKET_PATH
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} } while (nb = = -1); } } } See Al
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nbytes Number of bytes of entropy t
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See Also • EGADS by Secure Softwa
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If the generator is not seeded with
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Discussion In all cases, you will s
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Solution Because of the way that fl
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double spc_rand_cunifvariate(double
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See Also Recipe 11.11 11.16 Compres
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It would be nice if you did not hav
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For this reason, we think the full
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} int cur_val, i, j, runsz; unsigne
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See Also • NIST Cryptographic Mod
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ecause even if a source does fail c
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you use a seed file, you can just c
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• If you have to accept data from
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with a high-resolution clock (i.e.,
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Collecting entropy from the keyboar
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f[c + 2] = '>'; } else snprintf(bf,
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SpcGatherKeyboardEntropy( ) uses th
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} } if (hWndParent) EnableWindow(hW
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number of bits of entropy has been
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} return TRUE; pDlgData->cbRequeste
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See Also Recipes 11.19, 11.20 11.22
Page 673 and 674:
Discussion We strongly recommend th
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Chapter 12 CHAPTER 12 Anti-Tamperin
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tecture-specific checks to determin
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ure or to examine a hardware valida
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• Detecting modification to a com
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for (j = 8; j > 0; j--) { if (crc &
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#include CRC_START_BLOCK(test) int
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Solution Obfuscating compiled code
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" movl 0f( , %%ebx ), %%eax \n\t" \
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Because library functions are loade
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encoded as a series of 32 Obcode bi
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12.5 Performing Constant Transforms
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12.7 Splitting Variables Problem La
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12.9 Using Function Pointers Proble
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arrays. This array type will hide t
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eak; case SPC_ARRAY_FOLD: index = (
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The following example demonstrates
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Discussion The techniques for hidin
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12.12 Detecting Debuggers Problem S
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Discussion The spc_trap_detect( ) f
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12.14 Detecting Windows Debuggers P
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The int3 interface can also be used
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To demonstrate the effect this macr
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08048388 83 db 83h ; â 08048389 7D
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ine the instruction making the refe
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mprotect(buf, buf_len, PROT_READ |
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eturn 4; } /* get entry point : her
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need to use one of the three ring3
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cates failure, it’s likely that n
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tion gets caught. The only ways to
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memory location will generally stil
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eturn dst; } volatile void *spc_mem
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The mlock( ) system call on Unix im
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Discussion Both C and C++ allow the
Page 741 and 742:
Do not share signal handlers. Sever
Page 743 and 744:
#endif } static int signal_was_caug
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paper reached the widest audience,
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The proper way to handle a program
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handles[0] = cond; handles[1] = mut
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#ifndef WIN32 pool->tids = (pthread
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#define SPC_ACQUIRE_MUTEX(mtx) pthr
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if (socketpool_limit > 0 && socketp
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Table 13-1. Resources that may be l
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ability to run. The default limits
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Note that the structures as present
Page 763 and 764:
access to the machine. This makes i
Page 765:
ing log entries. It is possible, ho
Page 768 and 769:
attacks (continued) capture replay
Page 770 and 771:
CFB (Cipher Feedback) mode, 167, 18
Page 772 and 773:
deriving symmetric keys from a pass
Page 774 and 775:
EVP_CIPHER_CTX_set_padding( ), 227
Page 776 and 777:
integrity checking cipher modes, 16
Page 778 and 779:
message digests (continued) desirab
Page 780 and 781:
parallelizing MACs, 304 parent and
Page 782 and 783:
RAND_bytes( ), 604 RAND_load_file(
Page 784 and 785:
session ID context, 461 session IDs
Page 786 and 787:
spc_gather_keyboard_entropy( ), 631
Page 788 and 789:
symmetric cryptography, 116-154 alg
Page 790 and 791:
Windows (continued) Win 2000, restr
Page 792:
oads. They will often travel up to
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