DICTIONARY OF GEOPHYSICS, ASTROPHYSICS, and ASTRONOMY

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twistor object that is carried away at speed v (from an identical object that remains at rest) to a different location and is returned to its original location accumulates less total time interval than does its nonmoving “twin”. In principle, if the motions are at a substantial fraction of the speed of light and the distances are substantial (light years), one could demonstrate this effect with human twins. For instance, if one newborn twin travels 5 light years at a speed of 0.99c(c = speed of light) and then returns at the same speed, the stay-at-home twin would see the return at age 10, while the elapsed time for (the age of) the traveling twin would be Age = t 1 − v2 c 2 = 10 yr. × 0.14 = 1.4 yr . The paradox is with everyday experience, where these effects are so small as to be unnoticeable. The effect has been verified in atomic clocks flown around the Earth, in the operation of atomic accelerators, and in the correct operation of the global positioning satellite system. See Lorentz transformation, special relativity. twistor An element of the four-dimensional spinor representation space of the group SU(2,2). Following work in 1962–1963 with R.P. Kerr, the notion of a twistor was put forward by R. Penrose as a possible mathematical tool for formulating the quantum theory of gravitation. In the theory of relativity, a twistor represents the state of a massless particle. two-flow equations The two coupled differential equations for irradiances obtained by integrating the radiative transfer equation over the hemispheres of downward and upward directions. 2-form A rank-2 antisymmetric covariant tensor. A basis for 2-forms is the antisymmetric tensor product of pairs of 1-form basis forms. For instance, if {dxβ } is a basis for 1-forms, then {dxβ ∧ dxα } is a basis for 2-forms. Here ∧ is the antisymmetric tensor product, i.e., dx β ∧ dx γ = 1 β γ γ β dx ⊗ dx − dx ⊗ dx 2 © 2001 by CRC Press LLC 490 with ⊗ the tensor product. See tensor. two-ribbon flare A large flare that has developed as a pair of bright strands (ribbons) on both sides of the main inversion (“neutral”) line of the magnetic field of the active region, usually most prominent in Hα. Two-ribbon flares result in a substantial reconfiguration of the coronal magnetic field. two-stream approximation The two-flow approximation. See two-flow equations. two-stream instability A broad term referring to any of a number of resonant and nonresonant instabilities driven by the streaming of charged particles relative to the main body of a collisionless plasma. type I radio burst The metric type I burst is continuous radio emission from the sun, basically the normal solar radio noise. It can be enhanced during the late phase of a flare. The radio noise is unstructured, no frequency drift can be identified. type II radio burst In the metric type II burst, a relatively slow frequency drift can be observed, indicating a propagation of the electron source at a speed of about 1000 km/s. It is interpreted as evidence for a shock wave propagating through the solar corona, but it should be noted that the shock itself is not generating the radio emission but rather the electrons accelerated at the shock. As these electrons stream away from the shock, they generate small type III like structures, giving the burst the appearance of a herringbone in the frequency time diagram with the type II burst as the backbone and the type III structures as fish-bones. The type II burst is often split into two parallel frequency bands, interpreted as forward and reverse shocks. Type II radio bursts can also be observed with frequencies in the kilometer range (kilometric type II radio burst). The drift characteristic is similar to that of the metric counterpart, the frequency indicates that these bursts are excited in interplanetary space. Consequently, the kilometric type II burst is interpreted as the signature of a shock propagating through interplanetary space. It should be noted, however, that
only the fastest (speeds exceeding 1000 km/s) and strongest shocks excite kilometric type II bursts; thus, most interplanetary shocks do not excite these bursts. type III radio burst Short time scale decreasing frequency solar radio features occurring in association with a type II radio burst. type IV radio burst Metric type IV emission is a continuum, directly following the metric type II burst. It is generated by gyro-synchrotron emission of electrons with energies of about 100 keV. It consists of two components: a non- © 2001 by CRC Press LLC typhoon drifting part generated by electrons captured in closed magnetic loops, and a propagating type IV burst generated by electrons moving higher in the corona. type V radio burst Metric type V emission is a continuum, directly following the metric type III burst. It is stationary, showing no frequency drift. Most likely, the metric type V burst is radiation of the plasma itself. typhoon A tropical cyclone occurring in the (western) Pacific Ocean, equivalent to a hurricane in the Atlantic Ocean. 491
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© 2001 by CRC Press LLC DICTIONARY
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a Volume in the Comprehensive Dicti
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PREFACE This work is the result of
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Curtis Mobley Sequoia Scientific, I
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© 2001 by CRC Press LLC Editorial
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A-boundary A-boundary (or atlas bou
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accretion, Eddington presenceispart
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active front active front An active
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ADM mass is the extrinsic curvature
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afternoon cloud (Mars) are the syno
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albedo because the horizontal dimen
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Allan Hills meteorite Allan Hills m
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anabatic wind layers of the star, t
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anomalistic year anomalistic year S
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anticyclonic anticyclonic Any rotat
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archaeoastronomy A coronal arcade i
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ascending node of functions), f(−
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astronomical refraction such as mou
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atmosphere effect mass of the atmos
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aurora australis Earth’s magnetic
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axial dipole principle an order of
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Ballerina model tosphere through lu
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asalt In 1967 Sakharov identified t
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eam spread function erates auroral
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Beta Lyrae systems Beaufort Wind Sc
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Big Bang cosmology universe must ha
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inary star system time (see light-c
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lack hole black hole A region of sp
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BL Lacertae object shift z = 0.07,
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oson boson An elementary particle o
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Brazil current A generalization of
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Brunt frequency companions to somew
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utterfly diagram a very recent epoc
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Callisto ing probability is as high
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carbonaceous chondrite the object w
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Cartesian coordinates 5.4 5.2 5.0 4
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cataclysmic variable [binary models
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Celsius, Anders tions from the Eart
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Čerenkov radiation γ -rays in pur
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charge exchange an ordinary differe
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circulation density against polar a
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coastally trapped waves coastally t
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color excess color excess A measure
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comet, artificial in 2003, rendezvo
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computational relativity defined by
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conservation of angular momentum Bu
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continental plate types of continen
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conversion efficiency Temperature (
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core collapse the Earth has a core
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Coriolis Coriolis A term used to re
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coronal lines Except possibly for t
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cosmic microwave background, dipole
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cosmic nucleosynthesis temperature
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cosmochemistry of space surrounded
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cosmology does not apply at small (
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crater depth-diameter plots with a
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critical level they are recorded fr
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Curie (Ci) Curie (Ci) The special u
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curve of growth classical) field th
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cyclongenesis air masses along fron
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dark matter, cold study of clusters
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decibel universe and . indicates th
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de Hoffman-Teller frame de Hoffman-
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detritus detritus The particulate d
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differential heating/cooling differ
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diffusion creep wind speed. The ter
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dike results. Because the particle
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Dione at the new minima, so that th
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dispersion dispersion A phenomenon
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diurnal motion the non-periodic var
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Doppler broadening Doppler broadeni
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dragging phenomenon skin friction.
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ductile behavior variables of space
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dynamic recrystallization dynamic r
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earthquake intensity tude represent
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echelle spectrograph a central mass
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effective pressure independent theo
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Einstein Universe where Rab is the
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Electra Electra Magnitude 3.8 type
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elevation particles have been inter
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emissivity cence of aromatic hydroc
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energy particles are accelerated at
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environmental lapse rate environmen
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equatorial bulge tor being driven u
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equilibrium vapor pressure equilibr
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Eulerian Represents Newton’s 2nd
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exact solution The path of a star i
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extreme ultraviolet (EUV) extreme u
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fall speed (velocity) can be lofted
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F corona F corona The Fraunhofer, o
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figure of the Earth See cosmic topo
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first-order wave theory the fields
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flat universe flat universe A model
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focal mechanisms rays arriving para
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force balance force balance A term
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Fraunhofer lines where M is the mas
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friction velocity friction velocity
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F star where E and B are the electr
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G gabbro A coarse-grained igneous r
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Galilei (1564-1642). See Galilean t
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not become optically thin until muc
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gas. It is either a constant volume
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equator. While geodetic latitude is
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the Earth. These interactions can g
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that extend from the sun to Earth a
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Pleistocene, about 2 million years
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the difference between the number o
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temperature is ∼ 10 K everything
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of Einstein’s general relativity
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picture in the weak-field limit in
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Time (UT1) on January 1, 1972. In t
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tra would show a dip at frequencies
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Hα condensation Hα condensation T
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harmonic model harmonic model The r
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Helios mission mination shock, and
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helium burning strated to be 4 He.
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HI region sure and temperature char
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horse latitudes from the loci of th
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Hubble radius Press 1982; Mon. Not.
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hydraulic-fracturing method hydraul
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hydromagnetic wave netized cosmic p
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hysteresis (θ), tension head (ψ),
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igneous rocks rocks are classified
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inclination inclination In geophysi
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inferior conjunction the figure) in
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initial condition time. Different r
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interconnection field interconnecti
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interplanetary dust particles (IDPs
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intertropical convergence zone (ITC
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ionosonde Each sporadic E layer can
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ionospheric regions subsequently re
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iron Kα line iron Kα line A spect
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isotope delta value (δ) element is
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Jerlov water type one because of gr
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Julian year Gregorian Date (midnigh
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K Kaiser-Stebbins effect (1984) Ani
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ing the gravitational field outside
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observed. However, these correction
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L lagoon A shallow, sheltered bay t
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Langacker-Pi mechanism In cosmology
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the last scattering surface. See qu
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Law-of-the-Wall Scaling Relations L
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light bridge Observed in white ligh
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linear wave theory Also referred to
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and downcoast areas. Sediment is tr
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longshore sediment transport Transp
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deforming forces. If a potential Vn
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defined at moderate (3 Å) resoluti
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Prospector then dropped to an altit
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M M51 Object 51 in the Messier list
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or more km where the magma resides
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oring magnetic field lines to repul
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field, the force due to the magneti
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mencement (SC) in the geomagnetic f
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and the constant κ is equal to 1 m
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California, Berkeley Space Sciences
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For instance, in a model higher der
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interval, divided by that interval:
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median diameter, median grain size
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helium (for which the early tracers
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or in components, gαβ;γ = 0 , wh
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length range, normally associated w
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mirage Appearance of the image of s
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perature characteristics are found
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stratification are slight and turbu
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ock debris carried on or within a g
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N Nabarro-Herring creep When materi
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Nasmyth spectrum F(k/k η) 10 6 10
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esponding chromospheric network def
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(NASA) initiative to test and prove
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node A point of zero displacement.
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modes. Normal modes are excited by
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special relativity, such a vector h
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oblique-slip fault low elevation an
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One-form, 1-form attached to the fl
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orbital elements higher than the OW
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OVV quasar OVV quasar Optically vio
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P packageeffect Inoceanographyandot
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would exert alone, i.e., if all the
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the psychrometric constant, KE is a
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period The amount of time for some
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the object to be viewed, as with th
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pheophytin A phytoplankton pigment
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The Planck length is the approximat
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these faint, fuzzy objects. At firs
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types across (now separated) contin
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plus the arc stretching across it
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displacement of air and water masse
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and fluid flow obeys Darcy’s law.
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eter) andζ is the vertical compone
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precipitation Any form of liquid or
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albedo of 0.064, and orbits Neptune
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Q Q “Quality”; a measure of att
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static equilibrium, air parcels hav
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R R 136 See 30 Doradus. Raadu-Kuper
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tive element is called the parent e
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Recently radon buildup in buildings
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where r is the distance from the ce
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General vectors can be written as a
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state of saturation, i.e., the rati
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plasma, for a wave of angular frequ
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γmnp, this equation is definitiona
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the position of the turning point,
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to (1), the ratio of accelerations
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evolved, the more massive component
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saturation Satellite ephemeris, r A
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scattering albedo perpendicular sho
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seafloor spreading curs at a rate o
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sedimentary sedimentary Referring t
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seismometer the body’s interior c
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sferic galactic nuclei, distinct fr
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shock spike The shock speed then ca
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silicon burning spacetime describes
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sky sky The apparent dome over the
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Snell’s law gases differ from tho
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solar eclipse solar eclipse The blo
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solar P-angle tors Mikheyev, Smirno
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solar year mic rays into the outer
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space-like infinity space-like infi
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specific storage (Ss) volume, e.g.,
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Page 451 and 452: stiff fluid stiff fluid A fluid in
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Page 455 and 456: St. Venant Equations St. Venant Equ
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Page 461 and 462: supernovae, 1991bg pergiant stars.
Page 463 and 464: supernovae, fallback In practice, t
Page 465 and 466: supernovae, Type Ib/Ic in the peak
Page 467 and 468: supersonic Typical supernovae light
Page 469 and 470: symmetry posite walls of the cube,
Page 471 and 472: T tachyon A hypothetical subatomic
Page 473 and 474: Tethys system. Calypso orbits at th
Page 475 and 476: TT+LG·(JD−2443144.5)·86400 sec,
Page 477 and 478: thermal conductivity The property o
Page 479 and 480: turbulence is not two-dimensional,
Page 481 and 482: tidal period The time between two p
Page 483 and 484: a precession of 2.0 ◦ yr −1 , a
Page 485 and 486: ular to the direction of the force.
Page 487 and 488: to the atmosphere, via absorption o
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Page 491: correlated to the number of old dis
Page 495 and 496: unified soil classification schemes
Page 497 and 498: V V471 Tauri stars Binary systems i
Page 499 and 500: variable star A star that changes i
Page 501 and 502: A drop with increasing distance, as
Page 503 and 504: in declination. Virgo (Latin for vi
Page 505 and 506: Located near Socorro, NM at 34 ◦
Page 507 and 508: volume scattering function (VSF) Th
Page 509 and 510: wash load the magnetopause are disp
Page 511 and 512: Weber- Davis Model physical instabi
Page 513 and 514: Wheeler- DeWitt equation The Weyl t
Page 515 and 516: Wien distribution law Wien distribu
Page 517 and 518: winter anomaly Scale Wind Condition
Page 519 and 520: X xenoliths Rocks carried to the su
Page 521 and 522: Y yardangs Streamlined elongated hi
Page 523 and 524: Z Zeeman effect The splitting of sp
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