Promotion

differing areas of life. In most Western societies adolescence is designated as a period
between childhood and adulthood. There have been debates about whether the period
of childhood has always been recognized or whether it is essentially a modern concept
(Aries 1962; Pollock 1983 in Hunt 2005: 85). In general there is now broad support for
the view that there are differing ideas of children and childhood across cultures, and
that ideas have changed over time.
Contrasting ideas of the essential nature of a child as either ‘good’ or ‘evil’ have run
through Western cultures (Stainton-Rogers 2001). Where the child was seen as ‘good’,
childhood was a period of innocence in which children developed self-knowledge and
needed an environment offering protection against the wider world in which to grow
and develop. Childhood was important in its own right, not simply a period of preparation
for adult life. These ideas have influenced much pre-school education where
children are encouraged to express themselves through free play and creative work
within a facilitating and protecting environment. While the general need for protection
of young children would not be challenged, questions can be asked about the
nature and degree of protection that they need and the appropriate balance between
protection and gradual exposure to risks.
Contrasting conceptions of the child as ‘evil’, ‘wicked’ or ‘naughty’ have influenced
views on the purpose and process of socialization. In enabling the child to become
‘socialized’ or ‘saved’ (within a religious perspective) discipline and punishment were
seen as essential to the process. By the nineteenth century, children were more likely to
be described as ‘naughty’ rather than as ‘evil’, but the emphasis on discipline prevailed
(Stainton-Rogers 2001). The idea of the ‘naughty’ child, often in opposition to the
‘good’ one, continues to be a feature of popular discourse on children and evidence can
also be seen in the media and children’s literature.
Childhood in the disciplines of psychology and sociology
INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD 65
Concepts and theories from the various schools in psychology and sociology are
continuing influences on thinking and practice in mental health promotion. From
psychology there are, for example, theories on the ways that children learn and their
role in the learning process; how their understanding of the world develops; and how
they develop emotionally and socially. Theories of development have addressed cognitive
(Piaget, in Grieve and Hughes 1990: 26–50); moral (Kohlberg 1963, in Danziger
1971: 97); and socio-emotional (Erikson 1963; Bowlby 1971) aspects with critical
periods identified for some of them. Attachment theory which focused on the development
of emotional attachments through the process of bonding has had a strong
influence on thinking about early mental health (Winnicott 1964; Bowlby 1971). The
process was seen as important not only for mental health in childhood, but also as a
foundation for relationships throughout life. There are a number of questions which
have run through developmental psychology:
• Is the child active or passive in the development process? In contrast with the
relatively passive conceptions held by the behaviourists others such as the social
interactionists depicted the child as an ‘active agent’.