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56 PLATE 19 MEGASINKHOLES ASSOCIATED WITH HYDROTHERMAL SYSTEMS: EL ZACATON (MEXICO) AND KIZOREN (TURKEY) Plate 19. Megasinkholes (shafts) associated with hydrothermal systems, with travertine deposition near water table. Upper photo: El Zacatón, Mexico, a 325-m deep shaft, approximately 80 m wide at the surface, (see Chapter 4.5; photo by M.Gary). Lower photo: Kizoren obruk (obruck is a generic name for large collapse features in Turkey), a 125-m deep, approximately 120-m wide sinkhole in Konya Basin, Turkey. Travertine is exposed on the walls as the water table declined for ~ 20 m during the last several decades due to regional groundwater extraction. Photo by A.Klimchouk.
HYPOGENIC CAVE FEATURES 4.5 Selected examples of caves formed by hypogenic transverse speleogenesis In this section, a brief overview is provided of some exemplary caves for which hypogene transverse origin is firmly established or suspected based on available publications and personal observations by the author. Not all of them have been previously interpreted in this way, but their morphological and geological characteristics, consistent with the criteria discussed above, strongly suggest their development by rising flow in confined settings. In no way should this overview be considered as exhaustive for hypogenic caves. The number of such caves recognized around the world is rapidly growing, and it is going to expand dramatically by re-interpretation of many caves, based on the new approach suggested in this book. Rather, this is a list of reference cases to use in relating, refining or revising the origin of a great number of caves in many regions, and an illustration of the variety of geographic and geologic settings in which ascending hypogenic speleogenesis occurs. Central and Western Europe Hypogenic transverse caves are abundant throughout Central and Western Europe, occurring in both cratonic and disrupted (folded) settings. Probably the most well known and early recognized as hypogenic (hydrothermal) are caves in the Buda Mountains, Hungary (e.g. Müller and Sarvary, 1977. There is abundant literature on Hungarian hydrothermal caves, summarized in Takács-Bolner and Kraus (1989) and Dublyansky, Yu. (1995, 2000c). Triassic cherty limestones are overlain by 40-60 m of Eocene limestones covered by marls that form a largely impermeable cap. Denudation and fluvial erosion imposed over the complex block-fault geologic structure created various situations of breaching and draining of the cave-hosting limestones. Mean temperatures of descending waters invading the caves are 8-13 o C. Different thermal springs have mean temperatures between 20-60 o C, indicating that differing amounts of mixing take place (Ford and Williams, 2007). Almost the full range of thermal cave types and evolutionary stages of development can be found in Budapest, including 2-D and 3-D mazes, relict shafts, chambers, and modern caves discharging rising thermal waters at the level of the Danube River. Ford and Williams (2007) refer to a series of illustrative examples of the Buda Mountains caves. Pálvölgyi (Figure 22, A) and Ferenc-hegy caves are multistory mazes. Szemlöhegy Cave is a more simple outlet rift from along joints; it has abundant subaqueous calcite crusts. Molnár János is a modern outlet; its warm waters have been dove to -70 m, discovering ~4 km of maze at depth. Jószefhegy Cave is a shaft descending to ramiform chambers with abundant secondary gypsum deposits, where Ford and Williams (2007) point out that CO2 (hydrothermal) and H2S dissolution mechanisms may mingle within a small geographical area. Sátorkö-puszta Cave and Bátori Cave (Figure 22, B) are examples of basal chambers with a tree-like branching pattern of rising passages containing sequences of spherical cupolas. These passages extend for about 40 m above the chamber in Sátorkö-puszta. The origin of cupolas had been attributed earlier to the convectional condensation mechanism operating above the water table (Szunyogh, 1989). The chamber walls are largely converted to gypsum. Ford and Williams (2007) believe these caves are monogenetic H2S systems, major enlargements by H2S processes of earlier rising water shafts. Figure 22. Patterns of hydrothermal caves of the Buda Mountains, Hungary. A = maze pattern, plan view of Pálvölgyi Cave (by J. Kárpát and K. Takácsne-Bolner); B = bush-like patterns, 1 = profile of Sátorkö-puszta Cave (by M. Juhasz), 2 = profile of Bátori Cave (by P. Borka and J. Kárpát). From Dublyansky Yu. (2000c). 57
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Hypogene Speleogenesis: Hydrogeolog
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Foreword In 1998, the National Cave
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