Wireless Sensor Networks : Technology, Protocols, and Applications

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AVAILABLE WIRELESS TECHNOLOGIES 115 TABLE 4.8 A Comparison of IEEE 802.11b/g and IEEE 802.11a 802.11b/802.11g 802.11a Available bandwidth 83.5 MHz 300 MHz Unlicensed frequencies 2.4–2.4835 GHz 5.15–5.35 GHz, of operation 5.725–5.825 GHz Number of non- 3 (indoor–outdoor) 4 (indoor–outdoor) overlapping channels Data rate per 1, 2, 5.5, 11, 6, 9, 12, 18, 24, 36, channel 54 Mbps 48, 54 Mbps Modulation DSSS OFDM between IEEE 802.11b/g and IEEE 802.11a. The IEEE 802.11a protocol uses a complex digital modulation method: specifically, orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM); this digital modulation method requires more linearity in amplifiers because of the higher peak-to-average power ratio of the OFDM signal transmitted. In addition, better phase noise performance is required because of the closely spaced overlapping carriers. These issues tend to add to the implementation cost of 802.11a products. Although IEEE 802.11a was approved in the late 1990s, new product development has proceeded much more slowly than with 802.11b/g, due to the cost and complexity of implementation. Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) is a multiplexing technology that transmits multiple signals from or for different users simultaneously over a single transmission path, such as a cable or wireless system (commercial FM radio is an example). Each signal occupies its own unique frequency range (carrier), which is modulated by the data (text, voice, video, etc.). The OFDM spread-spectrum technique distributes the data over a large number of carriers that are spaced apart at precise frequencies. This spacing provides the orthogonality, which prevents the demodulators from seeing frequencies other than their own. The benefits of OFDM are high spectral efficiency, resiliency to RF interference, and lower multipath distortion. This is useful because in a typical terrestrial broadcasting scenario there are multipath channels (i.e., the signal transmitted arrives at the receiver using various paths of different length). Since multiple versions of the signal interfere with each other [intersymbol interference (ISI)] it becomes difficult to extract the original information. OFDM is the modulation technique used for digital television in Europe, Japan, and Australia [4.10]. As stated previously, a drawback of 5 GHz is that higher-frequency signals experience more difficulties propagating through physical obstructions encountered in an office (walls, floors, and furniture) than do those at 2.4 GHz. There is an intrinsic degradation in throughput as the distance between the transmitter and receiver increases. See Figure 4.7 for a comparison of the two standards or bands with regard to propagation or performance and distance. An advantage of 802.11a is its ability to deal with delay spread and multipath reflection effects: The slower symbol rate and placement of significant guard time around each symbol reduces
116 WIRELESS TRANSMISSION TECHNOLOGY AND SYSTEMS 60 Data Link Rate (Mbps) 50 40 30 20 10 802.11a 802.11b 0 0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 Range (ft) Figure 4.7 Performance characteristics of IEEE 802.11a: throughput comparison versus distance (indoor applications). the ISI caused by multipath interference; by contrast, 802.11b networks are generally range limited by multipath interference rather than the loss of signal strength over distance. Now-emerging multiple-input, multiple-output (MIMO) systems use multiple antennas to transmit and receive radio signals. MIMO methods increase the throughput and quality of the signals received. IEEE 802.11n uses MIMO techniques. For example, MIMO–OFDM will allow service providers to deploy a broadband wireless access (BWA) system that has non-line-of-sight (NLOS) functionality. Specifically, MIMO–OFDM takes advantage of the multipath properties of environments using base station antennas that do not have LOS. As noted, in multipath environments the original signal and the individual echoes each arrive at the receiver antenna at slightly different times, causing the echoes to interfere with one another, thus degrading signal quality. The MIMO system uses multiple antennas to transmit data simultaneously in small segments to the receiver, which can process the data flows and put them back together. This process, called spatial multiplexing, increases the data-transmission speed proportionally by a factor equal to the number of antennas transmitting. In addition, since all data are transmitted both in the same frequency band and with separate spatial signatures, this technique utilizes the spectrum fairly efficiently [4.10]. ZigBee In this section we provide a brief description of ZigBee. ZigBee is the only standards-based technology designed to address the unique needs of low-cost, low-power WSNs for remote monitoring, home control, and building automation network applications in the industrial and consumer markets [4.11]. The wireless systems discussed in previous subsections provide high data rates at the expense of power consumption, application complexity, and cost. However, there are many wireless monitoring and control applications for industrial and home markets that require longer battery life, lower data rates, and less complexity
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WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORKS Technology
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WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORKS Technology
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CONTENTS Preface xi About the Autho
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CONTENTS vii 5.4 MAC Protocols for
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CONTENTS ix 9.3 Traditional Network
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xii PREFACE text provides thorough
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xiv ABOUT THE AUTHORS communication
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1 INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW OF WIRE
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INTRODUCTION 3 in the wireless case
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INTRODUCTION 5 In this book we emph
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INTRODUCTION 7 and low-power-consum
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INTRODUCTION 9 1. The typical mode
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INTRODUCTION 11 Commercial applica
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BASIC OVERVIEW OF THE TECHNOLOGY 13
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REFERENCES 31 Standards As implied
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REFERENCES 33 [1.22] D. Minoli, W.
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REFERENCES 35 [1.58] S. Lindsey et
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REFERENCES 37 [1.89] J. M. Kahn et
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BACKGROUND 39 static routing over t
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BACKGROUND 41 The WNs have computat
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RANGE OF APPLICATIONS 43 TABLE 2.1
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RANGE OF APPLICATIONS 49 expect wit
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EXAMPLES OF CATEGORY 2 WSN APPLICAT
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Page 84 and 85: EXAMPLES OF CATEGORY 1 WSN APPLICAT
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Page 90 and 91: REFERENCES 71 In aggregating system
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Page 94 and 95: 3 BASIC WIRELESS SENSOR TECHNOLOGY
Page 96 and 97: SENSOR NODE TECHNOLOGY 77 2. Detect
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Page 104 and 105: WN OPERATING ENVIRONMENT 85 TABLE 3
Page 106 and 107: WN TRENDS 87 aggregated, fused, and
Page 108 and 109: WN TRENDS 89 TABLE 3.4 Partial List
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Page 112 and 113: 4 WIRELESS TRANSMISSION TECHNOLOGY
Page 114 and 115: RADIO TECHNOLOGY PRIMER 95 Ionosphe
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Page 120 and 121: RADIO TECHNOLOGY PRIMER 101 citizen
Page 122 and 123: AVAILABLE WIRELESS TECHNOLOGIES 103
Page 150 and 151: APPENDIX A: MODULATION BASICS 131 s
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Page 156 and 157: APPENDIX A: MODULATION BASICS 137 P
Page 158 and 159: REFERENCES 139 algorithm, although
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Page 162 and 163: BACKGROUND 143 therefore be shared
Page 164 and 165: FUNDAMENTALS OF MAC PROTOCOLS 145 T
Page 166 and 167: FUNDAMENTALS OF MAC PROTOCOLS 147 q
Page 168 and 169: FUNDAMENTALS OF MAC PROTOCOLS 149 T
Page 170 and 171: FUNDAMENTALS OF MAC PROTOCOLS 151 d
Page 172 and 173: FUNDAMENTALS OF MAC PROTOCOLS 153 w
Page 174 and 175: FUNDAMENTALS OF MAC PROTOCOLS 155 F
Page 176 and 177: FUNDAMENTALS OF MAC PROTOCOLS 157 A
Page 178 and 179: MAC PROTOCOLS FOR WSNs 159 A B C D
Page 180 and 181: MAC PROTOCOLS FOR WSNs 161 multihop
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MAC PROTOCOLS FOR WSNs 165 of nodes
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SENSOR-MAC CASE STUDY 167 services
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SENSOR-MAC CASE STUDY 169 Nodes are
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SENSOR-MAC CASE STUDY 171 to secure
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IEEE 802.15.4 LR-WPAN 173 Sender RT
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IEEE 802.15.4 LR-WPANs STANDARD CAS
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REFERENCES 193 residing within 30 f
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REFERENCES 195 [5.25] K. Sohrabi, J
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6 ROUTING PROTOCOLS FOR WIRELESS SE
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DATA DISSEMINATION AND GATHERING 19
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ROUTING CHALLENGES AND DESIGN ISSUE
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ROUTING STRATEGIES IN WIRELESS SENS
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REFERENCES 225 first two faces and
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REFERENCES 227 International Confer
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7 TRANSPORT CONTROL PROTOCOLS FOR W
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TRADITIONAL TRANSPORT CONTROL PROTO
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TRADITIONAL TRANSPORT CONTROL PROTO
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TRANSPORT PROTOCOL DESIGN ISSUES 23
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EXAMPLES OF EXISTING TRANSPORT CONT
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EXAMPLES OF EXISTING TRANSPORT CONT
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PERFORMANCE OF TRANSPORT CONTROL PR
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PERFORMANCE OF TRANSPORT CONTROL PR
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REFERENCES 245 [7.2] Y. Sankarasubr
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WSN MIDDLEWARE PRINCIPLES 247 are v
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MIDDLEWARE ARCHITECTURE 249 TABLE 8
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MIDDLEWARE ARCHITECTURE 251 for pos
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EXISTING MIDDLEWARE 253 of sensor n
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EXISTING MIDDLEWARE 255 reasonable
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EXISTING MIDDLEWARE 257 tools and s
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REFERENCES 259 8.5 CONCLUSION In th
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REFERENCES 261 [8.24] S. Kim, S. H.
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TRADITIONAL NETWORK MANAGEMENT MODE
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NETWORK MANAGEMENT DESIGN ISSUES 26
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EXAMPLE OF MANAGEMENT ARCHITECTURE:
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OTHER ISSUES RELATED TO NETWORK MAN
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REFERENCES 271 [9.2] L. B. Ruiz, F.
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10 OPERATING SYSTEMS FOR WIRELESS S
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OPERATING SYSTEM DESIGN ISSUES 275
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EXAMPLES OF OPERATING SYSTEMS 277 c
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EXAMPLES OF OPERATING SYSTEMS 279 w
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REFERENCES 281 10.3.9 PicOS One pro
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11 PERFORMANCE AND TRAFFIC MANAGEME
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BACKGROUND 285 data relaying, and s
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WSN DESIGN ISSUES 287 WSNs Routing
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PERFORMANCE MODELING OF WSNs 289 du
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PERFORMANCE MODELING OF WSNs 291 an
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PERFORMANCE MODELING OF WSNs 293 Th
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CASE STUDY: SIMPLE COMPUTATION OF T
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REFERENCES 301 [11.12] I. Demirkol,
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304 INDEX Code-division multiple ac
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306 INDEX NEMS, 28 Network design,
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