Wireless Sensor Networks : Technology, Protocols, and Applications

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ROUTING STRATEGIES IN WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORKS 221 forwarding rule used to move data traffic toward the destination. In the following section, various forwarding rules commonly used in position-based routing are described. Basic techniques used to overcome the lack of position information and obstacles are described. Forwarding Approaches An important aspect of geographical routing is the rule used to forward traffic toward its final destination. In position-based routing, each node decides on the next hop based on its own position, the position of its neighbors, and the destination node. The quality of the decision clearly depends on the extent of the node’s knowledge of the global topology [6.27]. Local knowledge of the topology may lead to suboptimal paths, as depicted in Figure 6.15, where the node currently holding the packet makes a forwarding decision based solely on local topology knowledge. Finding the optimal path requires global knowledge of the topology. The overhead that global knowledge of the topology entails, however, is prohibitive in resource-constrained WSNs. To overcome this problem, various forwarding strategies have been proposed [6.28–6.32]. The greedy routing scheme selects among its neighbors the one that is closest to the destination. In Figure 6.16, the node currently holding the message, node MH, selects node GRS as the next hop to forward the message. It is worth noting that the selection process used in this scheme considers only the set of nodes that are closer to the destination than the current message holder. If such a set is empty, the scheme fails to progress forward. In the most-forward-within-R strategy (MFR), where R represents the transmission range, a node transmits its packet to the most forward among its neighbors toward the destination. Based on this approach, the next hop selected by MH to Figure 6.15 Localized and globalized forwarding decision.
222 ROUTING PROTOCOLS FOR WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORKS Destination NFP GRS Coverage Zone MH α LEF CMP MFR MH: Message Holder Figure 6.16 Geographical routing forwarding strategies. forward the packet is node MFR. This greedy approach is myopic and does not necessarily minimize the remaining distance to the destination. The nearest-forward-progress scheme selects the nearest node with forward progress. Based on this scheme, node NFP is selected by MH to forward the message to the destination. The nearest-closer node is an alternative to this approach, in which the node currently holding the message selects the nearest node among all its neighbors which are closer to the destination. The compass routing scheme selects the node with the minimum angle between the straight line joining the current node and the destination and the straight line joining a neighbor and the destination. In Figure 6.16, node CMP will be selected as the next hop to forward the traffic to the destination. The low-energy forward scheme selects the node that locally minimizes the energy required, expressed in terms of joules per meter, to progress forward toward the target. In the network configuration shown in Figure 6.16, node LEF is selected by MH to move the traffic forward toward the destination. As stated previously, the scalability and data-centric attributes of geographical routing make it a feasible routing alternative in WSNs. Its applicability assumes, however, that the geographical locations of all neighboring nodes, or at least a subset thereof, are known to the message holder. Accurate information about the geographical location of nodes is typically available from a global positioning system (GPS) device [6.33–6.35]. It is possible that in certain settings, sensing nodes may be equipped with GPS devices. In most cases, however, the resource and energy limitation of sensor nodes prohibits the use of GPS devices. To address this shortcoming, strategies in which only GPS-augmented boundary nodes have access to exact location information have been suggested [6.36]. Nodes without GPS devices can use a variety of triangularization algorithms to determine their location and the location of their neighboring nodes.
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WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORKS Technology
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WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORKS Technology
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CONTENTS Preface xi About the Autho
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CONTENTS vii 5.4 MAC Protocols for
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CONTENTS ix 9.3 Traditional Network
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xii PREFACE text provides thorough
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xiv ABOUT THE AUTHORS communication
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1 INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW OF WIRE
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INTRODUCTION 3 in the wireless case
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INTRODUCTION 5 In this book we emph
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INTRODUCTION 7 and low-power-consum
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INTRODUCTION 9 1. The typical mode
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INTRODUCTION 11 Commercial applica
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BASIC OVERVIEW OF THE TECHNOLOGY 13
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REFERENCES 31 Standards As implied
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REFERENCES 33 [1.22] D. Minoli, W.
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REFERENCES 35 [1.58] S. Lindsey et
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REFERENCES 37 [1.89] J. M. Kahn et
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BACKGROUND 39 static routing over t
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BACKGROUND 41 The WNs have computat
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RANGE OF APPLICATIONS 43 TABLE 2.1
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RANGE OF APPLICATIONS 49 expect wit
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EXAMPLES OF CATEGORY 2 WSN APPLICAT
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ANOTHER TAXONOMY OF WSN TECHNOLOGY
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REFERENCES 71 In aggregating system
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REFERENCES 73 [2.25] ‘‘Short Di
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3 BASIC WIRELESS SENSOR TECHNOLOGY
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SENSOR NODE TECHNOLOGY 77 2. Detect
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SENSOR NODE TECHNOLOGY 79 Hardware
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Figure 3.3 Some of the networking p
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Very small (10 1 mm 3 ) Ultrasmall
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WN OPERATING ENVIRONMENT 85 TABLE 3
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WN TRENDS 87 aggregated, fused, and
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WN TRENDS 89 TABLE 3.4 Partial List
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REFERENCES 91 to those sensors so t
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4 WIRELESS TRANSMISSION TECHNOLOGY
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RADIO TECHNOLOGY PRIMER 95 Ionosphe
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RADIO TECHNOLOGY PRIMER 97 TABLE 4.
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RADIO TECHNOLOGY PRIMER 99 TABLE 4.
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RADIO TECHNOLOGY PRIMER 101 citizen
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AVAILABLE WIRELESS TECHNOLOGIES 103
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APPENDIX A: MODULATION BASICS 131 s
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APPENDIX A: MODULATION BASICS 133 T
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APPENDIX A: MODULATION BASICS 135 T
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APPENDIX A: MODULATION BASICS 137 P
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REFERENCES 139 algorithm, although
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REFERENCES 141 [4.36] C. Berrou, A.
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BACKGROUND 143 therefore be shared
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FUNDAMENTALS OF MAC PROTOCOLS 145 T
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FUNDAMENTALS OF MAC PROTOCOLS 147 q
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FUNDAMENTALS OF MAC PROTOCOLS 149 T
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FUNDAMENTALS OF MAC PROTOCOLS 151 d
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FUNDAMENTALS OF MAC PROTOCOLS 153 w
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FUNDAMENTALS OF MAC PROTOCOLS 155 F
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FUNDAMENTALS OF MAC PROTOCOLS 157 A
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MAC PROTOCOLS FOR WSNs 159 A B C D
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MAC PROTOCOLS FOR WSNs 161 multihop
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MAC PROTOCOLS FOR WSNs 163 can be o
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MAC PROTOCOLS FOR WSNs 165 of nodes
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SENSOR-MAC CASE STUDY 167 services
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SENSOR-MAC CASE STUDY 169 Nodes are
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Page 192 and 193: IEEE 802.15.4 LR-WPAN 173 Sender RT
Page 194 and 195: IEEE 802.15.4 LR-WPANs STANDARD CAS
Page 212 and 213: REFERENCES 193 residing within 30 f
Page 214 and 215: REFERENCES 195 [5.25] K. Sohrabi, J
Page 216 and 217: 6 ROUTING PROTOCOLS FOR WIRELESS SE
Page 218 and 219: DATA DISSEMINATION AND GATHERING 19
Page 220 and 221: ROUTING CHALLENGES AND DESIGN ISSUE
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Page 244 and 245: REFERENCES 225 first two faces and
Page 246 and 247: REFERENCES 227 International Confer
Page 248 and 249: 7 TRANSPORT CONTROL PROTOCOLS FOR W
Page 250 and 251: TRADITIONAL TRANSPORT CONTROL PROTO
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Page 254 and 255: TRANSPORT PROTOCOL DESIGN ISSUES 23
Page 256 and 257: EXAMPLES OF EXISTING TRANSPORT CONT
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Page 268 and 269: MIDDLEWARE ARCHITECTURE 249 TABLE 8
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Page 276 and 277: EXISTING MIDDLEWARE 257 tools and s
Page 278 and 279: REFERENCES 259 8.5 CONCLUSION In th
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Page 282 and 283: TRADITIONAL NETWORK MANAGEMENT MODE
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Page 288 and 289: OTHER ISSUES RELATED TO NETWORK MAN
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REFERENCES 271 [9.2] L. B. Ruiz, F.
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10 OPERATING SYSTEMS FOR WIRELESS S
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OPERATING SYSTEM DESIGN ISSUES 275
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EXAMPLES OF OPERATING SYSTEMS 277 c
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EXAMPLES OF OPERATING SYSTEMS 279 w
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REFERENCES 281 10.3.9 PicOS One pro
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11 PERFORMANCE AND TRAFFIC MANAGEME
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BACKGROUND 285 data relaying, and s
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WSN DESIGN ISSUES 287 WSNs Routing
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PERFORMANCE MODELING OF WSNs 289 du
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PERFORMANCE MODELING OF WSNs 291 an
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PERFORMANCE MODELING OF WSNs 293 Th
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CASE STUDY: SIMPLE COMPUTATION OF T
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REFERENCES 301 [11.12] I. Demirkol,
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304 INDEX Code-division multiple ac
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306 INDEX NEMS, 28 Network design,
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