Review of the management of feral animals and their impact on ...

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etal. (1997) found that many native species were disadvantaged by providing water <strong>and</strong> recommended that artificial waters be closed to address this problem. Closing artificial water points is possible in conservation areas after unwanted herbivores have been removed by humane methods (Parkes et al. 1996). While <strong>the</strong> permanent closure <strong>of</strong> artificial water points may be an option on <strong>the</strong> conservation estate, it is not an option on l<strong>and</strong> being managed for livestock production. In <strong>the</strong>se latter areas <strong>the</strong> focus will need to be on improved <strong>management</strong> <strong>of</strong> water points to minimise waste <strong>and</strong> more effectively manage livestock <strong>and</strong> grazing pressure. Current efforts to cap <strong>the</strong> bores throughout <strong>the</strong> Great Artesian Basin are likely to contribute in time to more effective <strong>management</strong> <strong>of</strong> both domestic livestock <strong>and</strong> <strong>feral</strong> <strong>animals</strong>. Activities such as bore-capping, bulldozing <strong>of</strong> dams <strong>and</strong> fencing <strong>of</strong> dams to exclude goats, or converting dams into o<strong>the</strong>r methods <strong>of</strong> providing water to stock that excludes <strong>feral</strong>s will restrict <strong>feral</strong> <strong>animals</strong> to regions surrounding natural water sources. The <strong>animals</strong> will become more localised in <strong>the</strong>ir distribution, aggregating around <strong>the</strong>se watering points, improving <strong>the</strong> efficiency <strong>and</strong> ease <strong>of</strong> control techniques.In all cases <strong>the</strong> <strong>impact</strong> <strong>of</strong> improved <strong>management</strong> or closure <strong>of</strong> water points on non-target species would need to be assessed before taking this action. 5.1.8 Biocontrol Biological control is sometimes regarded as a ‘holy grail’ <strong>of</strong> vertebrate pest control. Indeed, <strong>the</strong>re is some justification for its revered status because <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> extraordinary success <strong>of</strong> its two applications, both against <strong>the</strong> European rabbit: myxoma virus in 1950 <strong>and</strong> rabbit hemorrhagic disease in 1995. Myxoma virus, first proposed for rabbit control in Australia in 1908, caused a massive p<strong>and</strong>emic in <strong>the</strong> 1950s before dual evolution <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> rabbit <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> virus lessened its <strong>impact</strong>. The introduction <strong>of</strong> a second vector, <strong>the</strong> Spanish rabbit flea, gave myxoma virus a boost in <strong>the</strong> 1960s. Despite <strong>the</strong> reduction in its effectiveness over half a century, myxoma virus is still responsible for death <strong>of</strong> about half <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> rabbits born in Australia today. Rabbit hemorrhagic disease (RHD), more commonly referred to as calicivirus in Australia, emerged as a new disease <strong>of</strong> domestic rabbits in <strong>the</strong> 1980s. It potential as a biological control was recognised <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> disease was extensively studied in Spain <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>n in high security facilities in Australia. During ecological studies on Wardang Isl<strong>and</strong> <strong>of</strong>f <strong>the</strong> coast <strong>of</strong> South Australia, <strong>the</strong> virus moved to <strong>the</strong> mainl<strong>and</strong>. Despite <strong>the</strong> initial inadvertent release, a hugely successful campaign was able to be put in place <strong>and</strong>, as a result, <strong>the</strong> Australian rangel<strong>and</strong>s have benefited from a decade <strong>of</strong> significantly reduced rabbit populations. The availability <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Natural Heritage Trust enabled a considerable amount <strong>of</strong> on-<strong>the</strong>-ground follow-up to RHD to be conducted. Warren ripping has no doubt been an important adjunct to RHD in a number <strong>of</strong> areas. One study suggests that RHD has delivered in <strong>the</strong> order <strong>of</strong> $4.5 billion <strong>of</strong> value to <strong>the</strong> Australian nation, although <strong>the</strong> actual amount varies considerably on whe<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong> vegetation that is not utilised by rabbits is utilised by livestock or becomes a carbon store. What ever <strong>the</strong> actual figure, <strong>the</strong>re is no doubt that <strong>the</strong> return on <strong>the</strong> nation’s R&D investment <strong>of</strong> approximately $12 million has been phenomenal – in <strong>the</strong> hundreds <strong>of</strong> thous<strong>and</strong>s to one. This sort <strong>of</strong> investment return justifies <strong>the</strong> very high regard for biological control. Myxoma virus, being more effective <strong>and</strong> working from a much higher baseline for half a century, may well have returned <strong>the</strong> nation more than $100 billion in benefits. 78
The problem with biological control <strong>of</strong> vertebrates is that it is exceptionally rare. The two cases above are virtually <strong>the</strong> only examples available (RHD was introduced legally into New Zeal<strong>and</strong> following <strong>the</strong> Australian experience, again with beneficial results; myxoma virus was introduced into Europe following <strong>the</strong> Australian experience <strong>and</strong> had a devastating <strong>impact</strong> on native European rabbit populations). The rarity <strong>of</strong> a success means that concentrating on biological control alone is a very risky strategy. It is unlikely to succeed. However, <strong>the</strong> rewards from a success are so huge that biological control deserves inclusion in any R&D program related to pest animal control over vast areas such as <strong>the</strong> Australian rangel<strong>and</strong>s. Are new generation biological controls possible? For over a decade, Australian researchers have looked extensively at <strong>the</strong> possibility <strong>of</strong> creating new biological control products through <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> genetic modification. This work has been conducted principally through <strong>the</strong> Vertebrate Biological Cooperative Research Centre (CRC) <strong>and</strong> its successor organization, <strong>the</strong> Pest Animal Control CRC. From July 2005, a new CRC, <strong>the</strong> Invasive Animals CRC will carry forward some <strong>of</strong> this work. 5.1.9 Fertility control The genetic modification approach to developing new biocontrol products for vertebrates has concentrated on fertility control <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>feral</strong> mammals. Fertility control has <strong>the</strong> potential to be one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> most effective <strong>management</strong> techniques for managing <strong>feral</strong> <strong>animals</strong>. The techniques currently available are only suited to <strong>the</strong> <strong>management</strong> <strong>of</strong> small, isolated populations because <strong>the</strong>y are labour intensive <strong>and</strong> require each animal to be treated individually. Research is currently being undertaken, both in Australia <strong>and</strong> overseas, on fertility controls for a number <strong>of</strong> <strong>feral</strong> animal species. There are three main methods <strong>of</strong> manipulating fertility in mammals: surgical, chemical <strong>and</strong> immunological. Surgical contraception is not practical for large scale use since large numbers <strong>of</strong> <strong>animals</strong> would need to be captured, operated on <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>n released. Chemical <strong>and</strong> immunological controls hold more promise for broad-scale control. Chemical contraception Traditional chemical strategies are potentially effective but are difficult to deliver to wild animal populations, are not species-specific <strong>and</strong> can have undesired side effects, especially on reproductive behaviour. Research is continuing into developing contraceptions that are encapsulated in baits that have <strong>the</strong> potential to be tailored to <strong>the</strong> specific feeding behaviours <strong>of</strong> each animal. Immunocontraception Immunocontraception as a means to control fertility in free-ranging <strong>animals</strong> has ga<strong>the</strong>red a growing number <strong>of</strong> advocates in recent decades. This method aims to modify how specific proteins involved <strong>the</strong> reproductive process are recognised by <strong>the</strong> immune system. If <strong>the</strong> immune system is tricked into thinking that <strong>the</strong>se proteins are foreign material antigens, it will intervene <strong>and</strong> mount an antibody response that attacks <strong>the</strong> protein <strong>and</strong> interferes with its role in reproduction. This strategy has <strong>the</strong> potential to be highly specific to both species <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> reproductive process <strong>and</strong> can involve antigens that will not affect reproductive behaviour. Immunocontraceptives can potentially be spread through self-disseminating viruses. For example, current research into immunocontraception in rabbits investigates genetically modifying a strain <strong>of</strong> myxoma virus to carry <strong>the</strong> vaccine. This virus should disseminate through <strong>the</strong> rabbit population like <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r myxoma strains, <strong>and</strong> those infected will receive 79
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Review of<
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Contributors Andrew Norris Pest Ani
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3.7.36 Common Myna (Acridot
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Table of figures F
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Section 2 Introduction Feral <stron
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Amanda Dimmock, QD
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Section 3 A status review o
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3.4 Birds Thirteen (or 14) species
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Information on the
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Summary A rodent that contributes t
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Dingoes can become a threat to wild
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The significance of</strong
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macropods and b<st
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^Lasiorhinus krefftii North
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Perceived threat Geopsittacus occid
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conservation areas. It is less clea
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Table 8 Rare species found in <stro
Page 36 and 37: Competition Several examples are re
Page 38 and 39: In truth, camels do substantial dam
Page 40 and 41: the Tanami. Buffal
Page 42 and 43: The situation today Buffalo numbers
Page 44 and 45: qualify under IUCN criteria as enda
Page 46 and 47: 3.7.16 Goat (Capra hircus) Summary
Page 48 and 49: Drakonorchis drakeoides Hinged Drag
Page 50 and 51: 3.7.19 Red Deer (Cervus elaphus) Su
Page 52 and 53: Impacts Much is known about <strong
Page 54 and 55: Distribution Ostriches have won <st
Page 56 and 57: nest in tree hollows along
Page 58 and 59: Distribution The skylark is found i
Page 60 and 61: Distribution The blackbird is wides
Page 62 and 63: Land, and<
Page 64 and 65: have been translocated to o
Page 66 and 67: esources. Significant investment in
Page 68 and 69: many native species (Clarke et al.
Page 70 and 71: spread across the
Page 72 and 73: Section 4 Legislative framework 4.1
Page 74 and 75: protection, as long as it falls wit
Page 76 and 77: Native Vegetation Conservation Act
Page 78 and 79: ehabilitate existing native vegetat
Page 80 and 81: suppression, which is the</
Page 82 and 83: al. 1986, 1987). The use of
Page 84 and 85: 5.1.4 Mustering Commercial musterin
Page 88 and 89: the vaccine <stron
Page 90 and 91: Where possible, integration <strong
Page 92 and 93: strategy, relative cost-effectivene
Page 94 and 95: Fencing Feral buffalo have a reputa
Page 96 and 97: 5.3 Management of
Page 98 and 99: Summary of <strong
Page 100 and 101: time comes for the
Page 104 and 105: Individual tracking Tracking is a l
Page 106 and 107: SA - Currently cats are not widely
Page 108 and 109: Method of control
Page 110 and 111: Aerial shooting Aerial shooting can
Page 114 and 115: 80% of export was
Page 116 and 117: ensuring effective treatment <stron
Page 118 and 119: the lower cost, wi
Page 122 and 123: conservation value rathe</s
Page 124 and 125: effort on the cont
Page 128 and 129: follow transect lines, one kilometr
Page 130 and 131: as a refuge from predators. Removal
Page 134 and 135: was completed it was the</s
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warren structure amenable to recolo
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Poisons Traditionally, strychnine,
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infected and steri
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of high priority.
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Method of control
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5.11 Management of
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technique can allow for cost-effect
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Summary of <strong
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In South Australia, between 30 <str
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Summary of <strong
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% respondents 100% 90% 80% 70% 60%
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a) b) Figure 3. a) Extent o
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Figure 4 Response frequency for lik
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distribution of <s
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Section 7 Key problems and<
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• Goats degrading temperate woodl
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conservation problems in Europe <st
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message that camels are a valuable
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In the Koolatong R
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environmental degradation’ (Nor<s
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ecause dingo and d
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Various control methods have been a
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Pascale Taplin, an Indigenous L<str
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Lack of a Strategi
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eradicated after seeing the
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In some situations, payment <strong
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could have led to better protocols
Page 190 and 191:
Game hunting is a growing business,
Page 192 and 193:
Much as we might like it, t
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conservation outcome. In such a sit
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community consultation and<
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• Have the non-t
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provide opportunities for strategic
Page 202 and 203:
Section 9 Priorities for investment
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contacted for exact locations <stro
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way. Achilles heel research should
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efficient in any given situation. R
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west Queensland re
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Crossland, MR, 199
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Forsyth, DM, and P
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Lange, RT, and Gra
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Morgan, LA and But
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Parkes, JP, 1990, Feral goat contro
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Van Rensberg, PJJ, Skinner, JD, <st
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Appendix A Ferals animals</
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Indigenous lands I
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Appendix B Stakeholder survey form
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222
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224
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226
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Appendix C Database on past NHT fun
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Lachlan Rehabilitation of</
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Northern Territory
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Cape York Ambiilmungu-Ngarra tradit
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Wet Tropics Expansion and</
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Avon Protecting and</strong
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