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Population connected to sewerage infrastructure. The population of Mombasa served bywater-borne sewerage is 15% (Mwaguni and Munga, 1997). Other sources quote a figure of10% (Bambra 1998, UNDP – World Bank, Water and Sanitation Program September 1998).In the City of Mombasa only one third of the area of the Island is connected to water-bornesewerage. Except in some parts of Changamwe, the rest of the remaining Divisions of theDistrict are not sewered.Creeks. Mombasa Island is surrounded by a number of Creeks: Tudor, Makupa, Junda,Kilindini and Port Reitz. By their nature, creeks create steep cliffs that contributed to theformation of deep harbours. The port of Kilindini in Mombasa is of great importance not onlyto Kenya and East <strong>Africa</strong> but also to other land locked countries of central <strong>Africa</strong>.Mangrove Forests. Mangrove forests are the only gazzetted forests in Mombasa District.They cover a total area of 3059.4 ha; Port Reitz 1017.5 ha. Tudor Creek 1321.4 ha. andMtwapa Creek 720.5 ha.Water Resources. There are no rivers of any major significance in Mombasa District. Watersupply to the district comes from sources outside the District but within the Province and thesupply does not meet the demand. There is a large potential for groundwater in the District tosupplement the shortfall. Groundwater is tapped through shallow wells and boreholes but thewater is often either saline, highly mineralized or if fresh, contaminated from pit latrines orseptic tank soakage pit systems typically used for the disposal of sewage in large settlements.As a result, the supply of surface and ground water comes from sources outside the District.Existing Wastewater Management Infrastructure. There are two treatment plants that werebuilt to serve specific areas of the District. One is located on Mombasa Island and the otherin Changamwe Division. The treatment plant on the Island has been out of use for manyyears, and domestic wastes from the sewered population enter the marine environmentuntreated. The plant in Changamwe has also been out of use for a long time, has since beenre-designed and is now under construction to serve a larger population. This plant, to becommissioned soon, will greatly improve the sewage management in Mombasa. For the restof the population, the management of human wastes is by the use of pit latrines and septictank-soakage pit systems. 15% the population relies on septic tank/soakage pit system while72% use pit latrines. The responsible authorities are over-strained and under-funded andcannot provide regular emptying services to the rapidly growing urban population and who aretherefore left to cope with unsanitary practices. Tourist hotel establishments use septic tanksoakagepit systems for human wastes, although some of them have installed their ownsewage treatment plants.Wastewater Hot Spot Pollution Locations• Kipevu in the Kilindini Creek and Port Reitz Creeks, which receive both domesticsewage and industrial effluents, discharges. Due to the proximity of the industrial area tothe natural drainage basin of the Mombasa Island and the west mainland in Changamwe,most of the pollution load from industrial effluents pour into the Kilindini and Port ReitzCreeks. The Creek waters also receive large volumes of domestic sewage from theChangamwe Division, with Kipevu being the main hot spot.• Mtwapa Creek and the Kizingo sewage outfall in the Tudor Creek in which domesticand institutional sewage are discharged from Shimo La Tewa GK Prison.• Kibarani Dumpsite on the edge of Kilindini Creek is another major hot spot area.Pollution Loads and Pollutants (Coliform Bacteria, BOD, COD, Heavy Metals, Etc.)The main pollutants, according to measurements of Coliform Bacteria, BOD, COD and HeavyMetals carried out by Mwaguni and Munga in 1997 in the marine environment and groundwater sources in Mombasa, are BOD and Suspended Solids (SS) from domestic andindustrial sewage. Domestic sources account for 18% and industrial for 67% of BOD loadsand 10% and 55% of SS loads, as shown below. No comprehensive studies have beenconducted since 1997. Subsequent spot-check analyses indicate that the conditions tend toget worse.Final Draft Report – Cost Benefit Case StudiesGPA Strategic Action Plan on Sewage, October, 200016
Table 3: Summary of pollution loads from Mombasa District.Source BOD SS Oil N P HM OtherDomesticSewageBeach hotelsStorm waterSolid wasteIndustrialwasteShip waste *Livestockwaste4369(18.0%)100 (04%)522 (2.2%)1846(7.6%)16249(67%)14 (0.1%)1161(4.8%)3964 (10%)85 (0.2%)4447(11.3%)-21837(55.2%)11 (0.0%)9180(23.2%)-----103-622 (41.9%)18 (1.2%)166 (11.2%)-45 (3.0%)2 (0.1%)630 (42.5%)94 (19%)2 (0.4%)11 (2.3%)-6 (1.3%)0.2 (0.0%)364(76.3%)Cr0.25Cu0.001fe 2.9Ni0.005Zn0.11Phenol0.01S:0.12Totals 24233395241031483477(100%)(100%)(100%)(100%)100%* estimated domestic wasteSource: Mwaguni & Munga 1997Table 4: Microbial Contamination & Nutrient Levels-Mombasa Distr. Inshore Water AreasAreaBODmgO/lColiformper 100mlE. Coli per100mlNO ug-asN/lPO ug-as N/lKilindini / Port Reitz CreekTudor Creek0.2-2.40.4-4.00 –1800+0 –16000-5500 – 140.2-4.00.6-7.21.3-2.30.9-5.7Source: Mwaguni & Munga 1997Table 5: Sewage Discharge RatesDischarge Rates –cubic meters per daySource Design Flow Current Flow ProjectedChangamwe Stage 1 17 100 Unknown 51 300Kizingo 31 400 Unknown 94 200Source: Mwaguni & Munga 1997Fresh water Quality. Mombasa District has no surface water resources of its own. TheDistrict depends on surface water supplies from Baricho in Malindi District. These sourceshave low flows during the dry season and siltation causes frequent breakdowns during therain season resulting into perennial water shortages. All ground water sources developedalongside human settlement are unsuitable for drinking purposes because of the presence ofthe permanent sources of contamination from pit latrines and soakage pits. Only those sourcesdeveloped far away from human habitation passed the standards for drinking water.Table 6: Microbial contamination of ground water in Mombasa DistrictSource No Coliform count per100mlWellsWellsBoreholesBoreholes203111#25-1800+0 – 417-1800+0E. Coli count per 100ml Potability*0-1800+00-50Source: Mwaguni & Munga 1997Note: * Potability: 0 - not potable, 1 - potable, # Borehole water treated with ultra-violet radiation, Drinkingwater standards applied in Kenya are: (a) Coliform count < 10/100ml, (b) E. Coli count, nil0101Final Draft Report – Cost Benefit Case StudiesGPA Strategic Action Plan on Sewage, October, 200017
Page 2 and 3: TABLE OF CONTENTSPageTable of Conte
Page 4 and 5: The Report includes four Annexes wi
Page 6 and 7: 4.2 Programme ObjectivesTo facilita
Page 8 and 9: TERMS OF REFERENCEThis Report has b
Page 10 and 11: CHAPTER 1. ECONOMIC ANALYSIS AND EN
Page 12 and 13: aesthetic and recreational value, i
Page 14 and 15: marginal benefit of pollution reduc
Page 16 and 17: loss of labour force productivity.
Page 20 and 21: Threats to the Coastal and Marine E
Page 22 and 23: fall disposal in deep sea at Kilind
Page 24 and 25: There are three main categories of
Page 26 and 27: Child mortality, and death in gener
Page 28 and 29: 6. Estimated Annual Cost of Environ
Page 30 and 31: 2.2 DAR ES SALAAM CASE STUDY2.2.1 I
Page 32 and 33: Dissolved solids 83,940 45,280 9,83
Page 34 and 35: 4. Institutional Capacity Building
Page 36 and 37: Table 8: Classification of ValuesTy
Page 38 and 39: infrastructure. As shown above, the
Page 40 and 41: 6. MangrovesMangroves are an exampl
Page 42 and 43: • The total cost in column (3) is
Page 44 and 45: 2.3 BEAU VALLON (SEYCHELLES) CASE-S
Page 46 and 47: In the marsh areas, various species
Page 48 and 49: Dissolved inorganic nitrogen: The t
Page 50 and 51: TourismSeychelles• Number of tour
Page 52 and 53: lossesHuman Health Indicator: Treat
Page 54 and 55: Dose-response data are not availabl
Page 56 and 57: Table 13: Estimated Potential Annua
Page 58 and 59: CHAPTER 3. ACTION PROGRAMME INPUTS3
Page 60 and 61: Property impacts are widely known t
Page 62 and 63: 3. Wastewater Treatment in Ismailia
Page 64 and 65: • Health costs• tourism income
Page 66 and 67: Annex IRegional OverviewThe Western
Page 68 and 69:
• Degradation of coastal and mari
Page 70 and 71:
• Resource over-exploitation• S
Page 72 and 73:
Annex IIMombasa Regional and City P
Page 74 and 75:
Population covered by sewerage infr
Page 76 and 77:
Source: Mwaguni & Munga 1997Sewage
Page 78 and 79:
1628 people tested positive for cho
Page 80 and 81:
Annex IIIDar-es-Salaam Regional and
Page 82 and 83:
are extensively exploited by small-
Page 84 and 85:
Solid wastes. It is estimated that
Page 86 and 87:
Pollution load to surface water res
Page 88 and 89:
Mtoni and Pugu. Existing lakes incl
Page 90 and 91:
Annex IVSeychelles (Beau Valon Area
Page 92 and 93:
labour force generating the major p
Page 94 and 95:
Vacoa Village ST Algal growth Water
Page 96 and 97:
sea grass beds are able to soak up
Page 98 and 99:
Sewerage ManagementSewerage managem
Page 101 and 102:
REFERENCESA. Background Regional En
Page 103 and 104:
7 GOK 1997: Mombasa District Fisher
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