apple leaves, HortScience, 19, 815, 1984.11. Detling, J. K., Dyer, M. I., <strong>and</strong> Winn, D. T., Effect of simulated grasshopper grazing oncarbon dioxide exchange rates of western wheatgrass leaves, J. Econ. Entomol, 72, 403,1979.12. Boote, K. J., Jones, J. W., Smerage, G. H., Barfield, C. S., <strong>and</strong> Berger, R. D., Photosynthesisof peanut canopies as affected by leafspot <strong>and</strong> artificial defoliation, Agron. J.,72, 247, 1980.13. Ingram, K. T., Herzog, D. C., Boote, K. J., Jones, J. W., <strong>and</strong> Barfield, C. S., Effects ofdefoliating pests on soybean CO 2exchange <strong>and</strong> reproductive growth, Crop Sci., 21, 961,1981.14. Davidson, J. L., <strong>and</strong> Milthorpe, F. L., The effect of defoliation on the carbon balance inDactylis glomerata Ann. Bot., 30, 185, 1966.15. Poston, F. L., Pedigo, L. P., Pearce, R. B., <strong>and</strong> Hammond, R. B., Effects of artificial <strong>and</strong>insect defoliation on soybean net photosynthesis, J. Econ. Entomol., 69, 109, 1976.16. Syvertsen, J. P., <strong>and</strong> McCoy, C. W., Leaf feeding injury to citrus by root weeviladults: leaf area, photosynthesis, <strong>and</strong> water use efficiency, Florida Entomol., 68, 386,1985.17. Welter, S. C., Responses of tomato to simulated <strong>and</strong> real herbivory by tobacco hornworm,Environ. Entomol., 20, 1537, 1991.18. Higley, L. G., New underst<strong>and</strong>ings of soybean defoliation <strong>and</strong> their implications for pestmanagement, in Pest Management in Soybean, Copping, L. G., Green, M. B., <strong>and</strong> Rees,R. T., Eds., Elsevier, London, 1992, 56.19. Peterson, R. K. D., Danielson, S. D., <strong>and</strong> Higley, L. G., Photosynthetic responses of alfalfato actual <strong>and</strong> simulated alfalfa weevil (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) injury, Environ.Entomol., 21, 501, 1992.20. Peterson, R. K. D., Higley, L. G., <strong>and</strong> Spomer, S. M., Injury by Hyalophora cecropia(Lepidoptera: Saturniidae) <strong>and</strong> photosynthetic responses of apple <strong>and</strong> crabapple, Environ.Entomol., 25, 416, 1996.21. Peterson, R. K. D., <strong>and</strong> Higley, L. G., Temporal changes in soybean gas exchange followingsimulated insect defoliation, Agron. J., 88, 550, 1996.22. Burkness, E. C., Hutchinson, W. D., <strong>and</strong> Higley, L. G., Photosynthesis response of‘Carolina’ cucumber to simulated <strong>and</strong> actual striped cucumber beetle (Coleoptera:Chrysomelidae) defoliation. Entomologia Sinica, 6(1), 29, 1999.23. Hammond, R. B., <strong>and</strong> Pedigo, L. P., Effects of artificial <strong>and</strong> insect defoliation on water lossfrom excised soybean leaves, J. Kansas Entomol. Soc., 54, 331, 1981.24. Ostlie, K. R., <strong>and</strong> Pedigo, L. P., Water loss from soybeans after simulated <strong>and</strong> actual insectdefoliation, Environ. Entomol., 31, 341, 1984.25. Boote, K. J., Concepts for modeling crop response to pest damage, ASAE Pap. 81-4007,American Society of Agricultural Engineers, St. Joseph, MI, 1981.26. Peterson, R. K. D., Higley, L. G., Haile, F. J., <strong>and</strong> Barrigossi, J. A. F., Mexican beanbeetle (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) injury affects photosynthesis of Glycine max <strong>and</strong>Phaseolus vulgaris, Environ. Entomol., 27, 373, 1998.27. Sharkey, T. D., Photosynthesis in intact leaves of C 3plants: physics, physiology, <strong>and</strong> ratelimitations, Bot. Rev., 51, 53, 1985.28. Farquhar, G. D., <strong>and</strong> von Caemmerer, S., Modelling of photosynthetic response to environmentalconditions, in Encyclopedia of Plant Physiology, New Series, Lange, O. L.,Nobel, P. S., Osmond, C. B., <strong>and</strong> Zeigler, H., Eds., Springer, New York, 549, 1982.29. Farquhar, G. D., <strong>and</strong> Sharkey, T. D., Stomatal conductance <strong>and</strong> photosynthesis, Annu. Rev.Plant Physiol., 33, 317, 1982.30. Bowden, R. L., Rouse, D. I., <strong>and</strong> Sharkey, T. D., Mechanism of photosynthesis decrease
y Verticillium dahliae in potato, Plant Physiol., 94, 1048, 1990.31. Pennypacker, B. W., Knievel, D. P., Leath, K. T., Pell, E. J., <strong>and</strong> Hill, Jr., R. R., Analysisof photosynthesis in resistant <strong>and</strong> susceptible alfalfa clones infected with Verticilliumalbo-atrum, Phytopathology, 80, 1300, 1990.32. Fry, S. C., Aldington, S., Hetherington, P. R., <strong>and</strong> Aitken, J., Oligosaccharides as signals<strong>and</strong> substrates in the plant cell wall, Plant Physiol., 10, 1, 1993.33. Daley, P. F., <strong>and</strong> McNeill, J. N., Canopy photosynthesis <strong>and</strong> dry matter partitioning ofalfalfa infested by the alfalfa blotch leafminer (Agromyza frontella (Rondani)), Can. J.Plant Sci., 67, 433, 1987.34. Higley, L. G., Browde, J. A., <strong>and</strong> Higley, P. M., Moving towards new underst<strong>and</strong>ings ofbiotic stress <strong>and</strong> stress interactions, in International Crop Science I, Buxton, D. R.,R. F.,Shibles, R., Forsberg, R. A., Blad, B. L., Asay, K. H., Paulson, G. M., <strong>and</strong> Wilson,Eds., Crop Science Society of America, Madison, WI, 1993, 749.35. McNaughton, S. J., Physiological <strong>and</strong> ecological implications of herbivory , inEncyclopedia of Plant Physiology, New Series. Vol. 15., Functional Responses to theChemical <strong>and</strong> Biological Environment, Lange, O. L., Osmond, C. B., Nobel, P. S., <strong>and</strong>Ziegler, H., Eds., Springer, New York, 1983, 12.36. Garcia, R. L., Norman, J. H., <strong>and</strong> McDermitt, D. K., Measurements of canopy gasexchange using an open chamber system, Remote Sensing Rev., 5, 141, 1990.37. Welter, S. C., <strong>and</strong> Steggall, J. W., Contrasting the tolerance of wild <strong>and</strong> domesticatedtomatoes to herbivory: agro-ecological implications, Ecol. Appl., 3, 271, 1993.38. Metcalf, C. L., Flint, W. P., <strong>and</strong> Metcalf, R. L., Destructive <strong>and</strong> Useful Insects, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1962.39. Bardner, R., <strong>and</strong> Fletcher, K. E., Insect infestations <strong>and</strong> their effects on the growth <strong>and</strong>yield of field crops: a review. Bull. Entomol. Res., 64, 141, 1974.40. Pedigo, L. P., Hutchins, S. H., <strong>and</strong> Higley, L. G., Economic injury levels in theory <strong>and</strong>practice, Annu. Rev. Entomol., 31, 341, 1986.41. Welter, S. C., Responses of plants to insects: eco-physiological insights, in InternationalCrop Science I, Buxton, D. R., Shibles, R., Forsberg, R. A., Blad, B. L., Asay, K. H.,Paulson, G. M., <strong>and</strong> Wilson, R. F., Eds., Crop Science Society of America, Madison, WI,1993, 773.42. Hutchins, S. H., Higley, L. G., <strong>and</strong> Pedigo, L. P., Injury equivalency as a basis for developingmultiple-species economic injury levels, J. Econ. Entomol., 81, 1, 1988.43. Hutchins, S. H., <strong>and</strong> Funderburk, J. E., Injury guilds: a practical approach for managingpest losses to soybean, Agric. Zool. Rev., 4, 1, 1991.44. Peterson, R. K. D., Higley, L. G., <strong>and</strong> Danielson, S. D., Alfalfa consumption by adultclover leaf weevil (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) <strong>and</strong> development of injury equivalents forstubble defoliators, J. Econ. Entomol., 88, 1441, 1995.45. Wilkerson, G. G., Modena, S. A., <strong>and</strong> Coble, H. D., HERB: Decision model for postemergenceweed control in soybean, Agron. J., 83, 413, 1991.46. Hutchins, S. H., Buntin, G. D., <strong>and</strong> Pedigo, L. P., Impact of insect feeding on alfalfaregrowth: a review of physiological responses <strong>and</strong> economic consequences, Agron. J., 82,1035, 1990.47. Louda, S. M., Keeler, K. H., <strong>and</strong> Holt, R. D., Herbivore influences on plant performance<strong>and</strong> competitive interactions, in Perspectives in Plant Competition, Grace, J. B., <strong>and</strong>Tilman, D., Eds., Academic Press, New York, 1990.48. Tilman, D., Constraints <strong>and</strong> tradeoffs: toward a predictive theory of competition <strong>and</strong>succession, Oikos, 58, 3, 1990.49. Louda, S. M., <strong>and</strong> Collinge, S. K., Plant-resistance to insect herbivores: a field test of theenvironmental-stress hypothesis, Ecology, 73, 153, 1992.50. Chapin, F. S., Integrated responses of plants to stress, BioScience, 41, 29, 1991.
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Biotic Stressand Yield Loss
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-P
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PrefaceThe idea for this book came
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EditorsRobert K. D. Peterson, Ph.D.
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ContentsChapter 1Illuminating the B
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1Illuminating the Black Box:The Rel
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increase plant tolerance, through p
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the action of a stressor on a plant
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The magnitude and duration of injur
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Plant part injuredrefers to the pla
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cific competition, while agricultur
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2Yield Loss and PestManagementLeon
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direct relationships between the ac
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In keeping with the theme of this b
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egressions. Actually, the title “
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REFERENCES1. Teng, P. S., Crop Loss
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3Techniques for EvaluatingYield Los
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number of species and stage of cutw
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especially if buried in soil, can d
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elationships for some pests. When m
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injury can be precisely controlled
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day. 81, 99 However, except for an
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the literature most likely are actu
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20. Ba-Angood, S. A., and Stewart,
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60. Stewart, J. G., McRae, K. B., a
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99. Shields, E. J., and Wyman, J. A
- Page 54 and 55: 4.3.3.1.3 Third generation European
- Page 56 and 57: ing on the developmental stage at t
- Page 58 and 59: 4.2.2.1.2 Temperature stressPlant s
- Page 60 and 61: chronic injury. Acute injury result
- Page 62 and 63: ows, roadsides, or small grain fiel
- Page 64 and 65: numbers are present. Stink bugs, Eu
- Page 66 and 67: Oligonychus pratensis, feed on corn
- Page 68 and 69: ECB2. 224.3.3.1.4 The impacts of Eu
- Page 70 and 71: stalk borer, Papaipema nebris, is a
- Page 72 and 73: period prolonged with sufficient co
- Page 74 and 75: Arthropod injuries to developing ea
- Page 76 and 77: esponses to herbivory have been obs
- Page 78 and 79: Midwest, Purdue University CES and
- Page 80 and 81: 59. Bailey, W. C., and Pedigo, L. P
- Page 82 and 83: 5Phenological Disruptionand Yield L
- Page 84 and 85: ity by animal consumers is the agro
- Page 86 and 87: ously, structural components (e.g.,
- Page 88 and 89: FIGURE 5.2 Generalized alfalfa grow
- Page 90 and 91: 601, 1972.9. Gordon, C. H., Derbysh
- Page 92 and 93: do we know about how biotic stresso
- Page 94 and 95: ing both large and small leaf veins
- Page 96 and 97: population. Whole plants may respon
- Page 98 and 99: temporally and spatially, are more
- Page 100 and 101: some systems have allowed for a tra
- Page 102 and 103: injury guilds would center on the f
- Page 106 and 107: 7The Influence of Cultivarand Plant
- Page 108 and 109: unit ground area, and it indicates
- Page 110 and 111: without considering plant architect
- Page 112 and 113: photosynthesis. Regardless of the n
- Page 114 and 115: light interception. 45 Skeletonizin
- Page 116 and 117: Light interception, which intrinsic
- Page 118 and 119: var. Consequently, use of a single
- Page 120 and 121: 19. Jarosik, V., Phytoseiulus persi
- Page 122 and 123: 62. Caviness, C. E., Registration o
- Page 124 and 125: 8Drought Stress, Insects,and Yield
- Page 126 and 127: humidity. Because the relative humi
- Page 128 and 129: temperature and precipitation. Prop
- Page 130 and 131: compared to well watered soybeans.
- Page 132 and 133: Changes in plant hormones, such as
- Page 134 and 135: plays a key role in promoting plant
- Page 136 and 137: In soybeans, a leaf area index (LAI
- Page 138 and 139: 15. Schulze, E. D., Water and nutri
- Page 140 and 141: 52. Meyer W. S., and Walker, S., Le
- Page 142 and 143: 9The Impact of Herbivoryon Plants:
- Page 144 and 145: conditions of stress are themselves
- Page 146 and 147: are common, defenses to avoid herbi
- Page 148 and 149: plant tissue, resulting in gall for
- Page 150 and 151: found on cucumbers in polycultures
- Page 152 and 153: compensatory response. Also, more v
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Costa Rica, and there are several g
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ivory from white cabbage butterfly
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made, while larger vertebrate herbi
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important consequences to plant fit
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de Entomol., 38, 421, 1994.32. Kare
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chlorophyll content in spider mite
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114. Karban, R., and Strauss, S.Y.,
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10Stephen C. WelterCONTENTSContrast
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Although literature is drawn from a
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and wheat acres receiving some type
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pattern to be true. 109 Because rel
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used in the experiment influenced t
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artificially elevated nitrogen leve
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annual, landrace cultivars, or mode
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settings are coupled with genotype
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10. Kennedy, G. G., and Barbour, J.
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53. Panda, N., and Heinrichs, E. A.
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97. Gross, K. L., and Soule, J. D.,
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143. Davidson, J. L., and Milthorpe
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11Crop Disease andYield LossBrian D
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The conditions listed above are opt
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to associate the effects of disease
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general relationship between LAI an
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Biomassproduction(total dryweight)R
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Y RUE(t)RI(t)[1 X]dt [11.12]wher
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sue. The most accurate prediction o
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tion. Two weeks before harvest, the
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15. Spitters, C. J. T., Van Roermun
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57. Richardson, A. J., Wiegand, C.
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they were cheap, convenient, and ef
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dW / W dtcauses and consequences of
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(a)(b)Maize yield (Mg ha -1 )987654
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Recall that c is a constant, so by
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where the subscripts c and w repres
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0.6Fraction yield loss0.40.2Eq. 16,
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the leaf area index (LAI). Incorpor
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can no longer be tolerated and, the
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cide. Steckel et al. 68 showed that
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A eq ∑ jN eq,ji 1YL n,j [12.31]1
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samples per field. Thomas 85 sugges
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external factors such as annual wea
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38. Boznic, A. C., and Swanton, C.
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weeds, Weed Sci., 44, 856, 1996.79.
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competition and weed management. 3-
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per unit biomass (1/W i)(dW i/dt) o
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of light interception). Algorithms
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where G a,iis the water limited pla
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13.4 COMPETITION FOR SOIL NITROGENA
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As with soil water, Equations 13.10
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partitioning of nitrogen to leaves.
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and stems to optimize photosyntheti
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influence of enhanced UV-B conditio
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Systems Approaches at the Field Lev