the humboldt current system of northern and central chile - figema

MARTIN THIEL ET AL.reported (Neill et al. 2006). Recently, patches of C. fragile have been observed within the MPA(R. Villablanca personal observations), highlighting the importance of considering connectivitywith surrounding areas and the constraints of aquaculture sites for selecting location of MPAs(Micheli et al. 2004).The establishment of MPAs in Chile has so far been based on anecdotal recommendations (e.g.,resource management, tourist attractions) rather than scientific criteria. This approach is consideredinadequate to effectively protect biodiversity (Meir et al. 2004, Sutherland et al. 2004). Currentstrategies for implementing MPA networks require a systematic planning conservation method toidentify optimal sites for protection of biodiversity (Sayre et al. 2000, Beck & Odaya 2001). Thefirst step in planning an MPA is the assessment and mapping (Geographic Information System —GIS) of the coastal marine biodiversity, the physical environment and major threats (e.g., humanuses) and then the identification of priority sites using Decision Support Systems (DSS) based onalgorithms (Sala et al. 2002, Leslie et al. 2003). A DSS based on species richness has been usedto identify priority areas for marine vertebrate conservation along the Chilean coast (Tognelli et al.2005). Habitat classification is generally considered as the conservation goal in the DSS (Robertset al. 2003). However, benthic surveys along the Chilean coast (C. Gaymer & C. Dumont unpublisheddata) revealed that communities are probably more appropriate to characterise the benthicenvironment and consider the ecosystem processes (e.g., trophic cascades; Shears & Babcock 2003),ecological interactions (e.g., predator-prey; Micheli et al. 2004) and population connectivity (e.g.,larval dispersal; Palumbi 2003). Moreover, there is an urgent need for more scientific informationin Chilean marine biodiversity (e.g., there is a lack of taxonomic expertise), population connectivity(e.g., identifying source and sink populations) and ecological processes (in particular speciesinteractions in subtidal habitats are poorly studied).Although ecological knowledge is a key component in developing MPAs, the managementeffectiveness is the most important challenge for the success of an MPA (Mascia 2004, Pomeroyet al. 2004). A major difficulty arises from the way in which marine reserves and MUMPAs havebeen established in Chile. The former were created by an imposition from the central authority(fisheries ministry) without consulting the stakeholders, who are mostly in disagreement with thisnew status. This establishment strategy has turned enforcement into a complicated task for thefisheries authority, and this may turn into a major threat for the success of present and future MPAs.For example, since its creation in 1997, the marine reserve La Rinconada has been affected byfrequent illegal extractions of scallops (M. Avendaño personal observations). Social conflicts due tolack of communication between the authority and the stakeholders are also present within the recentlycreated marine reserves Isla Choros-Damas and Isla Chañaral. In contrast, a participative processtook place in the establishment of the MUMPA Isla Grande de Atacama, incorporating most of therelevant actors (i.e., administrative authorities, stakeholders, managers, scientists and fishermen),offering the opportunity to evaluate contrasting interests in order to reduce potential conflicts. Socialcosts should be evaluated before the establishment of MPAs and a formal educational process shouldbe implemented by the authorities to teach the importance of MPAs in developing sustainableexploitation of resources (Mascia 2004). The government should also negotiate compensations andpropose alternative activities (e.g., tourism) to fishermen, who are the ancestral users of the MPAareas, and avoid creating high expectations (Mascia 2004, Sobel & Dahlgren 2004).Ideally, an international MPA network (from Ecuador to Chile) including the connectivity amongMPAs should be implemented to effectively preserve biodiversity in the HCS. This should be achievedusing the support of international tools and agreements, and international non-governmental organisations(NGOs) in order to co-ordinate and improve the quality of scientific information and reducethe costs (Balmford et al. 2004). Moreover, the Chilean government must contribute to funding forimplementation and functioning of MPAs as successful conservation experiences from all over the298