MARTIN THIEL ET AL.speared large fish <strong>and</strong> marine mammals such as sea lions (Otaria juvata <strong>and</strong> O. flavescens) (Santoroet al. 2005). A report on <strong>the</strong> navigation <strong>of</strong>f <strong>the</strong> west coast <strong>of</strong> South America carried out by Lothrop(1932) showed artifacts used by aboriginal people <strong>of</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rn Chile. Most remarkable was a raftcomposed <strong>of</strong> two cylinders <strong>of</strong> seal hides tied toge<strong>the</strong>r to support a small platform on top, <strong>and</strong> whilevoyages out <strong>of</strong> sight <strong>of</strong> l<strong>and</strong> were rarely attempted, it was not uncommon to remain at sea for 2 or3 days (Lothrop 1932).Llagostera (1979), working between 21°S <strong>and</strong> 25°S, found evidence <strong>of</strong> groups <strong>of</strong> people with<strong>the</strong> ability to exploit natural resources from coastal waters ~10,000 yr BP, <strong>and</strong> he found remains<strong>of</strong> molluscan species such as Concholepas concholepas, Fissurella spp., Tegula atra, Choromytiluschorus, several species <strong>of</strong> fishes (e.g., Isacia conceptionis <strong>and</strong> Trachurus murphyi), <strong>and</strong> semifossilisedbones <strong>of</strong> sea lions <strong>and</strong> dolphins. Reports from sou<strong>the</strong>rn Peru suggest specific sites wheremainly fish <strong>and</strong> seabird resources were exploited (Keefer et al. 1998), while at o<strong>the</strong>r (more ephemeral)sites <strong>the</strong>y processed mainly molluscs (S<strong>and</strong>weiss 2003). Studies from sou<strong>the</strong>rn Peru <strong>and</strong>nor<strong>the</strong>rn Chile demonstrated that <strong>the</strong> resources exploited by early coastal settlers <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> HCSchanged with time (Llagostera 1979, S<strong>and</strong>weiss et al. 2001), which is taken as an indication <strong>of</strong>climate change <strong>and</strong> EN events, causing gradual or abrupt changes in available resources. Similarobservations were made in <strong>central</strong> Chile near 32°S (Báez et al. 2004). For <strong>the</strong> late Holocene(4000–2000 BP) Méndez & Jackson (2004) reported a high degree <strong>of</strong> mobility <strong>of</strong> coastal peoplein <strong>central</strong> Chile, who apparently moved between different sites in a region, exploiting <strong>the</strong> accessibleresources at a given site in an opportunistic manner.A <strong>system</strong>atic study <strong>of</strong> remains <strong>of</strong> marine invertebrate fauna from <strong>central</strong> Chile (Curaumilla,33°S) defined <strong>the</strong> ecological role <strong>of</strong> early inhabitants as shellfish ga<strong>the</strong>rers (Jerardino et al. 1992).According to <strong>the</strong>se authors, <strong>the</strong>y probably modified areas <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> rocky intertidal, causing decreasesin mean sizes <strong>of</strong> Concholepas <strong>and</strong> Fissurella. Interestingly, Llagostera (1979) suggested that <strong>the</strong>appearance <strong>of</strong> larger shells <strong>of</strong> Concholepas in shell heaps is indication <strong>of</strong> an increasing radius <strong>of</strong>action <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> exploitation <strong>of</strong> new fishing grounds. This author also remarked that <strong>the</strong> appearance<strong>of</strong> some fish species (e.g., cusk eels, locally called ‘congrio’, from <strong>the</strong> genus Genypterus, whichcan only be fished at greater depths) around 3000 BP is indication that coastal fishermen startedto venture far<strong>the</strong>r out to sea during that time period.In general, prehistoric people used littoral resources in an opportunistic manner, <strong>and</strong> during<strong>the</strong> past millennia <strong>the</strong>y increasingly widened <strong>the</strong>ir radius <strong>of</strong> action, improved <strong>the</strong>ir navigating skills(rafts) <strong>and</strong> developed <strong>the</strong>ir fishing techniques (fishing nets, hooks). Extraction <strong>of</strong> marine resourceswas not only for subsistence <strong>of</strong> local groups, but also for an intensive transfer <strong>of</strong> fish toward inl<strong>and</strong>sites (Briones et al. 2005). Local people persisted <strong>and</strong> exploited marine resources until well after<strong>the</strong> appearance <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Spanish (Llagostera 1979). The resources collected <strong>and</strong> captured by prehistoricpeople are <strong>the</strong> same that still today play an important role in <strong>the</strong> fisheries <strong>of</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rn <strong>and</strong> <strong>central</strong>Chile.Artisanal benthic fisheriesThe present artisanal fisheries in <strong>the</strong> HCS between 18°S <strong>and</strong> 35°S are very diverse, comprising~13 species <strong>of</strong> algae, ~45 species <strong>of</strong> invertebrates (molluscs, crustaceans, echinoderms, tunicates)<strong>and</strong> ~68 fish species (SERNAPESCA 2005). Before <strong>the</strong> 1980s, fisheries in general were <strong>of</strong> lowlevel <strong>and</strong> stable since products only went to local markets <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> intensity <strong>of</strong> exploitation wascomparatively moderate (Stotz 1997, González et al. 2006). During <strong>the</strong> mid-1980s <strong>the</strong> export <strong>of</strong>most <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> resources was initiated, producing increases in captures, <strong>and</strong> once <strong>the</strong> accumulatedbiomass was used up, <strong>the</strong> resources remained at low <strong>and</strong> fluctuating levels (Figure 22). In general,<strong>the</strong>se fluctuations have been interpreted as <strong>the</strong> classical signs <strong>of</strong> a badly regulated fishery, as278
THE HUMBOLDT CURRENT SYSTEM OF NORTHERN AND CENTRAL CHILEL<strong>and</strong>ings (t)5000A4000Stock3000 build-up2000100001200010000B80006000400020000250002000015000100005000080006000400020000CD19791981Argopecten purpuratusAMERBAquacultureFisheryMesodesma donaciumClosuresAMERBConcholepas concholepasLoxechinus albusFishery AMERB198319851987198919911993199519971999200120032005250002000015000100005000Figure 22 L<strong>and</strong>ings <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> four most valuable invertebrate resources in Regions I–VIII, according to fisherystatistics <strong>of</strong> SERNAPESCA: www.sernapesca.cl <strong>and</strong> AMERB, ‘Area de Manejo y Explotación de RecursosBentónicos’ (MEABR, Management <strong>and</strong> Exploitation Area for Benthic Resources).described by Hilborn & Walters (1992): discovery <strong>of</strong> a stock, development <strong>of</strong> its fishery <strong>and</strong>subsequent overexploitation <strong>and</strong> eventually collapse.In order to improve <strong>the</strong> management status <strong>of</strong> benthic fisheries (mainly dive fisheries forinvertebrates <strong>and</strong> algae), Chile has established a <strong>system</strong> <strong>of</strong> Territorial User Rights for Fisheries(TURF), called Areas de Manejo y Explotación de Recursos Bentónicos (AMERB or Management<strong>and</strong> Exploitation Areas for Benthic Resources MEABR, which are <strong>the</strong> diverse names <strong>and</strong> shortcutsunder which <strong>the</strong>y have been described in <strong>the</strong> literature) (Castilla 1997, Stotz 1997, Castilla &Fernández 1998, Aviléz & Jerez 1999, Bernal et al. 1999, Meltz<strong>of</strong>f et al. 2002, González et al.2006). This management tool grants exclusive fishing rights over a defined coastal area to legallyestablished organisations <strong>of</strong> local fishermen. These areas are exploited according to a managementplan, developed by pr<strong>of</strong>essionals, approved by authority, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>n worked by fishermen under <strong>the</strong>permanent supervision <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> administrative authority. This <strong>system</strong> was initiated in practice byfishermen at <strong>the</strong> beginning <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> 1990s, but legally established in 1997 (Stotz 1997). In general,it has proven to be a good tool to increase stocks <strong>and</strong> recover depleted fisheries (Stotz 1997, Castilla0Harvest aquaculture (t)XIVVRMVIVIIVIIIIXXIXIIIIIIII18° −31° −42° −53° −Sou<strong>the</strong>rn latitude279