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EUROPEAN POLICE SCIENCE AND RESEARCH BULLETIN SPECIAL CONFERENCE EDITION Kammer, A.; Niehues, J. & Peichl A. (2013). Welfare regimes and welfare state outcomes in Europe. Journal of European Social Policy 22 (5), 455-471. Kääriäinen, J. & Lehtonen H. (2006). The variety of social capital in welfare state regimes — A comparative study of 21 countries. European Societies 8 (1), 27–57. Kääriäinen, J. (2007): ‘Trust in the Police in 16 European Countries — A Multilevel Analysis’. European Journal of Criminology 4 (4), 409-435. Kääriäinen J. (2008): ‘Why Do the Finns Trust the Police?’ Journal of Scandinavian Studies in Criminology and Crime Prevention 9 (2), 141-159. Kääriäinen J. & Sirén, R. (2011). Trust in the police, generalised trust and reporting crime. European Journal of Criminology 8 (1), 65-81. Kääriäinen J. & Sirén R. (2012). Do the police trust in citizens — European comparisons? European Journal of Criminology 9 (3), 276-289. Lappi-Seppälä, T. (2011). Explaining imprisonment in Europe. European Journal of Criminology, 8(4), 303–328. Loftus, B. (2009). Police Culture in a Changing World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Manning, N. (2004) ‘Diversity and change in pre-accession Central and Eastern Europe since 1989’, Journal of European Social Policy 14 (3): 211/32. Nannestad P. (2008). What Have We Learned About Generalised Trust, If Anything? Annual Review of Political Science 11, 413-436. Nickels, E.L. & Verma A. (2008). Dimensions of police culture: a study in Canada, India, and Japan. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management 31 (2), 186-209. Oorschot, W. & Van Arts, W. (2005). The social capital of European welfare states: The crowding-out hypothesis revisited. The Journal of European Social Policy 15 (1), 5–26. Paxton, P. (2007). Association Memberships and Generalised Trust: A Multilevel Model Across 31 Countries. Social Forces 86 (1), 47-76. Putnam, R. D. (2001). Bowling alone. The collapse and revival of American community. New York: Touchstone. Rothstein, B. & Toerell, J. (2008). What is Quality of Government? A Theory of Impartial Government Institutions. Governance: An International Journal of Policy, Administration, and Institutions 21 (2), 165-190. Sato, M. & Hough, M. (2013). Report on an empirical assessment of fear of crime & punitive sentiment across Europe. In: Fiducia — new european crimes and trust-based policy. Edited by: Stefano Maffei & Lenga Markopoulou. Available at: http://www.fiduciaproject.eu/media/publications/11/FiduciaVol1_ Nov18.pdf . (Accessed 13.12. 2013) Skolnick J.H. (1966). Justice without Trial. Law Enforcement in Democratic Society. John Wiley & Sons. Sunshine, J. & Tyler, T. (2003). ‘The Role of Procedural Justice and Legitimacy in Shaping Public Support for Policing’, Law & Society Review, 37, 513-48. Tyler, T. & Fagan, J. (2008). ‘Legitimacy and Cooperation: Why Do People Help the Police Fight Crime in Their Communities?’ Ohio State Journal of Criminal Law 6, 231-275. Tyler, T. & Huo, Y. (2002). Trust in the Law. Encouraging Public Cooperation with the Police and Courts. Russell Sage Foundation, New York. Van Damme, A., Pauwels, L. & Swensson R. (2013). Why do Swedes Cooperate with the Police? A SEM Analysis of Tyler’s Procedural Justice Model. European Journal of Criminal Policy and Research. Published online 08 November 2013. Van Kesteren, J. (2009). Public Attitudes and Sentencing Policies Across the World. European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research 15 (1-2), 25-46. Van Maanen, J. (2005). The asshole. In Tim Newburn (ed.) Policing. Key Readings. Cullompton: Willan Publishing. 100
EUROPEAN POLICE SCIENCE AND RESEARCH BULLETIN SPECIAL CONFERENCE EDITION POLICE USE OF SOCIAL MEDIA TO SUPPORT COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT — ITS RISE IN POLICE PRACTICE IN THE UK Nicholas John Keane United Kingdom Keywords: Police, social media, engagement Abstract: This essay looks at the adoption by the United Kingdom Police Forces of social media (i.e. Facebook and Twitter) as part of their engagement strategies. It highlights the policy drivers that have informed this work. It indicates areas for future research. There are many dimensions concerning police use of social media — some commentators identify three main areas: engagement, intelligence and enforcement (Bartlett et al, 2013). This essay focuses on police use of social media with regard to engagement, defined by Myhill as ‘the process of enabling the participation of citizens and communities in policing at their chosen level, ranging from providing information and reassurance to empowering them to identify and implement solutions to local problems and influence strategic priorities and decisions.’ (Myhill, 2006: iv). While the other two areas ´intelligence and enforcement’ will be mentioned in passing. The primary focus here is how the police use social media as part of their engagement with their communities. In his book, A New Study of Police History (1956), Charles Reith, a British police historian, discussed the vision of policing set out by Charles Rowan and Richard Mayne, who, in 1829 were the first and joint Commissioners of the newly formed Metropolitan Police in London. Rowan and Mayne stated that their conception of a police force was ‘unique in history and throughout the world because it derived not from fear but almost exclusively from public cooperation with the police, induced by them designedly by behaviour which secures and maintains for them the approval, respect and affection of the public’ (Reith, 1956: 14). This vision of ‘policing by consent’ has been part of policing in the United Kingdom throughout the following decades; Reiner argued that it was a central theme of UK policing in the 1970’s and 1980’s (Reiner, 1992), however Hough argued that in the 1990’s newer systems of police management meant the concept was less in favour (Hough, 2007) The current century, it is argued, has found two different models of policing in tension with each other: the crime control model based on law enforcement and punishment and more subtle models of social control based on procedural justice. (Hough et al, 2010). The procedural justice model moves the emphasis away from understanding why people commit offences and greater emphasis on understanding why people comply with the law (Bottoms, 2002). This vision is restated from a political perspective that policing in the United Kingdom is carried out, as much as possible, with public support, with ‘the power of the police coming from the common consent of the public, as opposed to the power of the state.’ (Home Office, 2012) Since 2008 the United Kingdom police forces have been using social media such as Facebook and Twitter as significant channels to communicate and facilitate engagement with the communities they serve. By the end of 2013, they have a substantial and increasing presence on social media platforms — analysis by Norfolk Constabulary shows that Police Force’s official accounts on Facebook have been ‘liked’ by just under one million people, while the Force’s 101
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