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EUROPEAN POLICE SCIENCE AND RESEARCH BULLETIN SPECIAL CONFERENCE EDITION Parkinson, P. (1994). Tradition and Change in Australian Law. Sydney: LawBook. Pinder J. & Usherwood, S. (2007). The European Union: A Very Short Introduction (2nd Ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Reiner, R. (1992). Policing a Post-Modern Society. 55, The Modern Law Review, 761-781. Schneider, D. (1998). Ein grenzüberschreitendes kooperatives Sicherheitssystem. Oder — Auf der Suche nach einer neuen Qualität der Zusammenarbeit. 42, Kriminalistik, 302-306. Single European Act, signed 17 February 1986, [1987] OJ L 169/1 (entered into force 1 July 1987). Sheptycki, J. (2009a). Cross-border Policing (pp. 70-72). In A. Wakefield and J. Fleming (Eds.). The SAGE Dictionary of Policing. London: SAGE. Sheptycki, J. (2009b). Globalisation (pp. 124-126). In A. Wakefield and J. Fleming (Eds.), The SAGE Dictionary of Policing. London: SAGE. Sheptycki, J. (1996). Policing Postmodernism and Transnationalisation. Paper presented to the Symposium on New Forms of Government, University of Toronto, October 1996, unpublished. Standing Committee of Attorney General and Australasian Police Ministers Council Joint Working Group on National Investigations (2003). Leaders Summit on Terrorism and Multijurisdictional Crime — Cross-Border Investigative Powers for Law Enforcement: Report. Canberra: Australian Government. Standing Committee on Legal and Constitutional Affairs, Senate (2009). Law and Justice (Cross Border and Other Amendments) Bill. Storbeck, J. (1993). La Coopération des Polices en Europe. 13, Les Cahiers de la Sécurité Intérieure, 175-180. Spapens, T. (2008). Policing a European Border Region: The Case of the Meuse-Rhine Euroregion (pp. 225-241). In E Guild and F Geyer (Eds.). Security versus Justice? Police and Judicial Cooperation in the European Union. Aldershot: Ashgate. Treaty Concerning Extradition and Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters between the Kingdom of Belgium, the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg and the Kingdom of the Netherlands, signed 27 June 1962 (entered into force 11 December 1967), as amended by the Protocol Supplementing and Amending the Benelux Treaty Concerning Extradition and Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters, signed 11 May 1974 (entered into force 1 March 1982). Treaty Establishing the European Coal and Steel Community, signed 18 April 1951, 261 UNTS 140 (entered into force 23 July 1952). Treaty Establishing the European Economic Community, signed 25 March 1957, 298 UNTS 3 (entered into force on 1 January 1958). Treaty of Lisbon Amending the Treaty on European Union and the Treaty Establishing the European Community, signed 13 December 2007, [2007] OJ C 306/1 (entered into force 1 December 2009). Treaty on European Union, signed 7 February 1992, [1992] OJ C 191/1 (entered into force 1 November 1993). Wallace, W. (1999). The Sharing of Sovereignty: the European Paradox. 47, Political Studies, 503-521. 122
EUROPEAN POLICE SCIENCE AND RESEARCH BULLETIN SPECIAL CONFERENCE EDITION CRIME, SCIENCE AND POLICING Gloria Laycock United Kingdom Keywords: Crime prevention, policing, crime science. Abstract: In almost every country on earth the primary means used by governments in the control of crime involves the use of a criminal justice system – police, courts and prisons etc. This paper will suggest that, important though these are for delivering justice or retribution, they are not fit for purpose in the 21st Century as a major means of crime control. Much greater emphasis needs to be placed on science and experimentation in developing ways to control crime and particularly in stopping it before it happens. The paper argues for the introduction of crime science as an appropriate discipline upon which to base a more rational and empirical approach to crime reduction and discusses the characteristics of this approach and what it might mean in practice. 1. INTRODUCTION Crime ( 1 ) rates are notoriously difficult to measure and we can argue at length about whether or not crime is rising, falling or staying the same. In this paper it is accepted that in general rates of crime rose throughout a large part of the last century in most of the advanced western democracies – Europe, the USA, Australia and so on. Much of this rise, as has been argued elsewhere, was due to the increase in the availability of desirable goods and the changes in social organisation that facilitated theft, burglary and other property crime (Felson and Clarke, 1998; Felson, 2002). As illustration Figure 1 below shows the rise in crime per 1,000 population in England and Wales from 1918-1993. Along with the rise in crime we saw a rise in the prison populations. In the UK, for example, the prison population rose by 2.5% per annum from Figure 1: Crime rate per 1,000 population, England and Wales – 1918 -1993 ( 8 ) Although this paper discusses crime the discussion applies equally to disorder and anti-social behaviour, organised crime and terrorism. 123
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