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EUROPEAN POLICE SCIENCE AND RESEARCH BULLETIN SPECIAL CONFERENCE EDITION and fewer grievances and complaints; and better relationships with the community, resulting in a more effective service and better quality services, leading to increased public confidence. In an era where the emphasis on service in policing has become paramount, evidence suggests that women may have a positive impact on shifting policing philosophy away from a crime control to a community and citizen-focused approach. Women officers demonstrate a strong ‘service oriented’ commitment to policing, emphasising communication, familiarity and the building of trust and rapport with communities (Brown and Woolfenden, 2011; Davies and Thomas, 2003; Heidensohn, 1992; Fleming & McLaughlin, 2010). Miller (1999) found that women police are perceived as ‘friendly and service oriented’ by members of their communities. Brown et al. (2009) present evidence to demonstrate that the members of the community recognise the value of an increased representation of women and the importance of a more diverse police service, expressing preferences for women police to deal with victims and missing persons. The Patten Report (1999) in Northern Ireland has also emphasised the positive effect of having a much higher proportion of women officers on enhancing the effectiveness of policing within the community. In relation to their enactment of everyday practices, specifically, interacting with and apprehending potential or actual perpetrators of crime, research shows that, when compared to men, women police appear to be less ‘trigger happy’ and much less likely use deadly force (Brown and Langan, 2001; McElvain and Kposowa, 2008; Waugh et al, 1998), utilise threats, physical restraint, force and arrest (Rabe- Hemp, 2008; Shuck & Rabe- Hemp, 2005). In a study of conflict management, Braithwaite & Brewer (1998) found that male officers were twice as likely as female officers to engage in threatening behaviour and physical contact with members of the public, which in turn elicited greater resistance and aggression. Such findings appear to provide explanations for evidence which demonstrates that women are less likely to abuse their power and attract complaints and allegations of misconduct (Brereton, 1999; Corsianos, 2011; Lonsway, Wood and Spillar, 2002). Waugh et al. (1998) found that male police attracted two and a half times as many allegations of assault as female police. Moreover, successive inquiries into corruption and police misconduct in Australia have concluded that there is a direct association between increasing the number of women police officers and reducing levels of corruption (Fleming & Lafferty, 2003). Positive outcomes in relation to policewomen’s enactments of police practices can also be found in relation to their interactions with victims of crime, particularly those that have experienced sexual offences and domestic violence. Research by Brown and King (1998); Page (2007) and Schuller and Stewart (2000) found that women police officers are more likely to believe victims, attribute less blame to the victim and be less accepting of rape myths than their male counterparts. Research by Rabe-Hemp (2008, 2009) also suggests that women officers bring a high level of empathy in serving the needs of women and children, especially those that have been subject to violent or sexual abuse. Using data collected by a large scale observational project on the impact of officer gender on police response to domestic violence, Sun (2007) found that whilst there was no significant difference between female and male officers in their exercise of control actions towards citizens, there is some evidence to support the link between officer gender and non-coercive actions. Such findings are echoed in a recent review of global policing which has emphasised the positive effects of women for police conduct and policecommunity interactions, in the management and de-escalation of conflict situations and in the support for victims of crime (Brown et al., 2014). The extent to which the call for more women police stems from an appreciation of the benefits outlined above remains a contested point. More cynically perhaps, the call for more women might be better understood as an attempt to re-balance a loss in police legitimacy in times of crisis. Plagued by a series of high profile events and chief officer resignations in England and Wales, the past decade has witnessed a growing disquiet over the failures of police leaders and of the need to transform and diversify the police workforce, particularly those working in leadership (Condon, 1997; HMIC, 1996; HMIC, 1999). The race to appoint a new London Metropolitan Police Commissioner in September 2011 serves as a good example here. In July 2011, Conservative Prime Minister David Cameron, told the House of Commons that the system for producing police leaders was ‘too closed’, and that ‘There are too few, and arguably too similar, candidates applying for the top jobs’. Following widespread media speculation over who might succeed Sir 146
EUROPEAN POLICE SCIENCE AND RESEARCH BULLETIN SPECIAL CONFERENCE EDITION Paul Stephenson, the lack of women and ethnic minority officers in the frame for this leadership role became unashamedly apparent. The appointment of Sir Bernard Hogan Howe from an all-male short list served once more to emphasise the lack of diversity at the top of British policing — no women or black or ethnic minority candidates applied for the job. This is not to suggest that women were not encouraged to come forward, indeed, London Mayor Boris Johnson clearly favoured the appointment of a woman to the top job, suggesting that this is precisely what policing needed. In predicting possible successors, The Evening Standard (19th July 2011) newspaper ran a double spread feature on potential female candidates entitled ‘Can these women save the Met? Restoring trust lies with senior females’. Such calls for more women to ‘clean up’ policing have become a familiar mantra in times of crises, controversies and ‘integrity lapses’. This is nothing new; rather it is a recurring theme in women’s engagement with policing. As noted earlier, historical reflection demonstrates that a discourse of ‘crisis’ has served as an important impetus for the recruitment of women into policing. Heidensohn (1992; 2000) reminds us that at moments of crisis the police service often turn to women as ‘a desperate remedy’ to offset staffing shortages, avert criticism, as an antidote to corruption or symbolically to demonstrate a softer side to policing. The same can be seen in Australia where the movement towards gender equality owes much to organisational crises, with official reports pointing to the direct association between increasing the number of women police officers and reducing the levels of complaints against the police organisation (Fleming & Lafferty, 2003). Increasing women’s presence in policing in this respect forms a crucial strategy in professionalising the police. In these cases ‘women are “allowed in” at particular historical points when agencies wish to (re)legitimise their practices’ (Prenzler & Wimhurst, 1996, p.16). The appointment of South Africa’s first female police chief, Mangwashi Victoria Phiyega in 2012, has also been firmly located within such discourses, being cited as ‘South Africa’s hope, the saviour of the nation’s corruption-riddled, scandal-plagued police service’ (The Guardian, 13 June, 2012). Though not the focus of this paper, it is worth noting briefly here, such a characterisation of women’s transformative potential is dangerous, not least because it inevitably has a tendency to essentialise all women (and by implication men), but it assumes that women will not only bring something different to the work of policing but that they bring something ‘better’. This is not necessarily a good place to campaign for more women in policing; rather, the benefits of recruiting more women into policing are best aligned to securing equity, social justice and legitimacy (see Dick et al., 2013 for a fuller discussion of this debate). With equalities law and policy firmly established, together with a recognition by police organisations that gender balance is important, both to the work of policing and to securing greater legitimacy with communities, what do contemporary studies tell us about women’s experiences in policing? CONTEMPORARY STRUGGLES? Despite showing an upward trend in the number of women police, closer inspection suggests a more cautious reading is necessary here. If we locate where women are positioned within the rank structure, it becomes strikingly clear that things are nowhere near equal. The number of women working in police leadership remains low with women forming only 18 % of those officers ranked Chief Inspector or higher. Such figures remain a key concern, particularly given that research commissioned by the British Association of Women Police (BAWP) in 2006 suggests a 35 % representation of female officers is necessary for adequate progression and cultural integration. Women fare no better in policing systems across the world. Indeed one of the striking truisms about policing is that issues of gender transgress national boundaries. Despite jurisdictional differences in policing systems, there are clear parallels in relation to gendered experiences, with women police in England and Wales sharing much in common with their European and more global counterparts. In a rare international review of the progression and integration of women in policing, Van Ewijk (2012) notes that there is no evidence of a fully integrated police organisation where women represent 50 % of the officer workforce and enjoy an equivalent share of the full range of roles and ranks within the police hierarchy. Rather, in most developed democracies it seems that the percentage of sworn women police remains under 25 % and for the most part, appears to have reached a plateau. For women in non-democratic or emerging democracies, they remain grossly under-represented (Natarajan, 2008). The stark lack of women in senior positions is also replicated across jurisdictions (Brown et al., 147
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