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EUROPEAN POLICE SCIENCE AND RESEARCH BULLETIN SPECIAL CONFERENCE EDITION Lucas, T., Weidner, N., & Janisse, J. (2013). Where does work stress come from? A generalisability analysis of stress in police officers. Psychology & Health, 27(12), 1426-1447. doi: 3910.1080/08870446.2012.687738 MacDonald, B., Argent, M.J., Elliot, J., May, N. H., Naylor, P. J. G., & Norris, N. F. J., (1987). Police probationer training: The final report of the stage II Review. London: HMSO Publications Centre. Mathur, P. (1999). Stress in police in India: Recognition, diagnosis and coping strategies. New Delhi: Gyan Publishing House. McCarthy, W. P., Zhao, J. S., & Garland, B. E. (2007). Occupational Stress and burnout between male and female police officers. Are there any gender differences. International Journal Police Strategies and Management, 30, 672-691. doi:10.1108/13639510710833938 Mikkelsen, A., & Burke, R. J. (2004). Work-family concerns of Norwegian police officers: Antecedents and consequences. International Journal of Stress Management, 11(4), 429-444. Nicholls, A. R., Jones, C. R., Polman, R. C. J., & Borkoles, E. (2009). Acute sport-related stressors, coping, and emotion among professional rugby union players during training and matches. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 19, 113-120. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0838.2008.00772.x Oakley, R. (2001, October). Building police-community partnerships: UK and European experience. Paper presented at Policing Partnerships in a Multicultural Australia: Achievements and Challenges <strong>Conference</strong> convened by the Australian Institute of Criminology in conjunction with The National Police Ethnic Advisory Bureau and The Australian Multicultural Foundation under the auspices of The <strong>Conference</strong> of Commissioners of Police of Australasia and the South-West Pacific Region, Brisbane. http://www.aic.gov.au/media_library/conferences/policing/oakley1.pdf Queirós, C., Kaiseler, M., & Silva, A.L. (2013). Burnout as predictor of aggressivity among police officers. European Journal of Policing Studies,1(2), 110-135. Recasens i Brunet, A., Basanta, A.R., Agra, C., Queirós, C.L., & Selmini, R. (2009). Espagne, Portugal et Italie: un développement de la recherche au coeur de démocraties latines fragiles:…connaître la Police dans un contexte de transition politique inachevée. In P. Ponsaers, C. Tange & L. Van Outrive (Eds.). Regards sur la Police, un quart de siècle de recherche sur la Police en Europe et dans le monde anglo-saxon (pp. 419-486). Bruxelles: Bruylant. Segerstrom, S.C., & O´Connor, D.B. (2012). Stress, health and illness: Four challenges for the future. Psychology & Health, 27(2), 128-140. doi:10.1080/08870446.2012.659516 Trull, T. & Ebner-Priemer, U.W. (2013) Ambulatory Assessment. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 9, 4.1 — 4.27. doi:10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-050212-185510 Vertovec, S. (2007). Super-Diversity and its Implications. Ethnic and Racial Studies 30(6), 1024–1054. Violanti, J.M., & Aron, F. (1995). Police stressors: Variations in perceptions among police personnel. Journal of Criminal Justice, 23(3), 287-294. Violanti, J. M., & Paton, D. (2006). Who Gets PTSD? Issues of Posttraumatic Stress Vulnerability. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas. Weisburd, D., & Neyroud, P. (2011). Police science: Toward a new paradigm. New perspectives in policing. Harvard Executive Session on Policing and Public Safety. Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice, U.S. Department of Justice. 142
EUROPEAN POLICE SCIENCE AND RESEARCH BULLETIN SPECIAL CONFERENCE EDITION GENDER AND POLICING: NARRATIVES OF CRISIS, CHANGE AND CONTINUITY Marisa Silvestri United Kingdom Keywords: Gender; Policewomen; Diversity; Cult of Masculinity; Police leadership Abstract: The recruitment of a more diverse police workforce has been central to police reform agendas across time and place. Police organisations throughout the world have been subject to a number of high-profile and damning reports that have emphasised the damaging effects of a lack of diversity. Such damaging effects have been repeatedly cited in relation to both external interactions between police and citisens, and to the internal interactions between police officers themselves. This paper considers more specifically the issue of gender representation within policing. It reflects on the histories that have shaped women’s entry, progression and participation in policing over the past century and considers some of the contemporary challenges faced by police organisations in maintaining and improving women’s representation within a climate of economic constraint. Histories of policing have consistently demonstrated that bringing about change to the organisation is a difficult and often protracted process. Indeed much research has pointed to the long tradition of police resistance to organisational change initiatives. Through reflecting on the past and present, it engages with narratives of ‘crisis’ ‘change’ and ‘continuity’ in thinking about the future of gender and policing. The recruitment of a more diverse police workforce remains a central feature of contemporary police reform agendas throughout the world. Encompassing race, religion, gender and sexuality, diversity debates within policing are wide ranging and go beyond the scope of this contribution. This paper focuses more specifically on the issue of gender and policing. In 2010, the Home Office’s ‘Assessment of Women in the Police Service’ detailed considerable progress in relation to the increase in female recruitment, representation and progression in England and Wales, asserting that ‘female recruitment is strong and women officers’ chances of promotion are generally on par with their male counterparts’ (Home Office, 2010, p.3). With the number of women in policing in England and Wales indicating an upward trend currently standing at 27 %, there is no doubt that the police service has done much to demonstrate its commitment to realising equality, diversity and human rights. That said, the continued under-representation of women within the police workforce, particularly at senior levels, remains a key and consistent reality for police organisations across the world (Dick et al. 2013; Van Ewijk, 2012; Prenzler & Sinclair, 2013). This paper calls into question the popular mantra that suggests that ‘all things are equal now’. It reflects on the histories that have shaped the call for women’s entry into policing, their progression and participation within policing over the past century and considers women’s early experiences of policing in relation to some of the contemporary concerns about women’s participation in policing. It is not my aim here to provide a historical account of women’s role in policing nor to compare the progress made by women worldwide. Rather, through historical reflection, we can begin to map just how far policing has come in relation to addressing issues of gender within its workforce and to think more critically about the concepts of ‘crisis’ and ‘change’. It also affords an opportunity to speculate about some of the key challenges that lie ahead in relation to achieving gender balance and equality, particularly in times of global economic constraint and austerity. 143
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