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CHAPTER 4 FOOD AND <strong>AGRICULTURE</strong> SYSTEMS IN CLIMATE CHANGE MITIGATION approaches to forest management can be more successful than traditional, hierarchical programmes and may help to strengthen civil society and democratization processes (FAO, 2016b). They also create social capital, networks and social relations which allow communities to cope better with climate change. The challenge posed by most forest-related mitigation activities is the need for substantial investment before benefits and co-benefits accrue, typically over many years if not decades. The substantial mitigation potential of forestry will not materialize without appropriate financing and enabling frameworks that create effective incentives. Another issue is energy production and product substitution, which have social, economic and cultural implications (EEA, 2016). For example, policies in the European Union to increase the use of biofuels, including wood fuels, for energy generation are affecting how foresters in the region manage their forests, and how land in developing regions is used (EC, 2013). There are several reported cases of land grabs for biomass production, which has implications for food security. Agricultural landscapes Many current agricultural practices contribute to losses of soil organic carbon and to the reduction of SOC returns to soils (Table 12). Losses can be lowered or SOC returns to the soil increased by reducing fires, overgrazing and soil erosion, or by recycling crop residues and manure. Another option is to change the balance between photosynthesis and ecosystem respiration by increasing crop photosynthesis, through the use of cover crops, intercropping and agroforestry, and by minimizing soil disturbance through conservation agriculture. Large gains in crop carbon balances can also be achieved with improved crop varieties, nitrogen-fixing legumes and organic and inorganic fertilizers, which boost the amount of crop residues available for returning to the soil. Improved water management is also a strong driver of primary productivity, and complements all of those practices. Practices optimized to sequester soil organic carbon also strengthen food security and facilitate climate change adaptation. As levels of SOC increase, important yield co-benefits could also be achieved year after year in developing countries (Lal, 2006). 7 By facilitating improvements in soil structure, water infiltration and water holding capacity, soil organic carbon also helps build resilience to drought and flooding, two climate change impacts that affect particularly tropical regions (Pan, Smith and Pan, 2009; Herrick, Sala and Jason, 2013). However, the impacts on yields are dependent on local conditions and the combination of practices adopted by farmers, and yield losses have been observed (Pittelkow et al., 2015). Carbon sequestration in agricultural soils may not be lasting. The extra soil carbon stored through improved agricultural practices is partly in unprotected forms, such that a fraction would decompose if the practices ceased. In addition, soil carbon sequestration may increase nitrous oxide emissions in the short term, and deficiencies in soil phosphorus and nitrogen may impede SOC storage (Penuelas et al., 2013). Action aimed at reaping the climate mitigation benefits of soil organic carbon needs to take a long-term view and be applied at landscape rather than at field scale. It requires an understanding that adoption of soil carbon sequestration measures will take time, and that SOC will increase only over a finite period, up to the point when a new equilibrium is reached. The additional stock will need to be monitored and conserved using appropriate land management practices. All of these factors were considered in an FAO-supported initiative on the restoration of degraded grasslands in the Qinghai region of China (Box 19). Finally, agroforestry – the integration of trees and shrubs into crop and livestock systems – prevents soil erosion, facilitates water infiltration and reduces the impacts of extreme weather events. It also helps to diversify income sources 7 Lal et al. (2004) estimate these co-benefits at a ratio of 0.07 unit of dry matter (DM) per soil organic carbon unit (≈ 0.07 t DM/t SOC). » | 82 |
THE STATE OF FOOD AND <strong>AGRICULTURE</strong> 2016 TABLE 12 EXAMPLES OF AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES LEADING TO REDUCTIONS IN SOIL CARBON STOCKS Temperate regions Semi-arid and arid regions Tropical regions Drainage and cultivation of organic soils Breeding on the harvest index Grazing pressure amid erratic rainfall contributing to desertification Lack of trees and lack of water conservation measures Slash-and-burn agriculture lack of crop organic fertilization Deep ploughing Lack of cover crops Lack of cover crops Lack of crop-livestock integrated systems and agroforestry Drainage and fires of tropical peatlands Decline in permanent grasslands area Limited reuse of urban and industrial organic wastes Note: The harvest index refers to the weight of the harvested part of a plant as a share of total above ground biomass in the plant. SOURCE: FAO and ITPS, 2015. BOX 19 RESTORATION OF DEGRADED GRASSLANDS IN CHINA Too much livestock can lead to overgrazing and land degradation. This is the hard lesson learned by herders in Qinghai region, China, where some 38 percent of grasslands have been degraded. Together with the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (CAAS), the World Agroforestry Centre and the Northwest Institute of Plateau Biology, FAO recently developed a methodology that gives farmers the tools to manage their animals and grasslands more sustainably for years to come. Restoring degraded grazing lands and increasing stocks of soil carbon can simultaneously increase productivity, build resilience by improving soil moisture and nutrient retention, and improve livelihoods in small-scale herder communities. However, until now, carbon sequestration projects in grasslands have been hampered by high measurement costs. This problem was overcome in Qinghai with the development of a methodology certified by the Verified Carbon Standard, which focuses on monitoring practices. It allows farmers to access new sources of finance through carbon credits, which cover the costs of changing their management practices before productivity gains make it profitable to restore grasslands. SOURCE: FAO, 2013a. | 83 |
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2016 THE STATE OF FOOD AND AGRICULT
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ISSN 0081-4539 2016 THE STATE OF FO
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NOTES BORIA VOLOREIUM, SIT AUT QUIS
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FOREWORD Following last year’s hi
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productivity in regions where peopl
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Statistical annex The annex was pre
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY THE WORLD FACES A
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productivity improvements. However,
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emissions of greenhouse gases. The
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flows. This approach would allow fa
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NAROK, KENYA Maasai pastoralists gr
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CHAPTER 1 HUNGER, POVERTY AND CLIMA
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TABLE 1 CLIMATE IMPACTS ON SELECTED
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CHAPTER 2 CLIMATE, AGRICULTURE AND
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KEY MESSAGES 1 UNTIL ABOUT 2030, GL
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BOX 5 SUMMARY OF CLIMATE CHANGE IMP
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THE STATE OF FOOD AND AGRICULTURE 2
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SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA NEAR EAST AND NO
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FIGURE 5 PROJECTED CHANGES IN CROP
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THE STATE OF FOOD AND AGRICULTURE 2
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Page 53 and 54: TABLE 3 NUMBER OF PEOPLE LIVING IN
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Page 57 and 58: FIGURE 10 FOOD INSECURITY AND CLIMA
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Page 64 and 65: BYUMBA, RWANDA A tea plantation in
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Page 110 and 111: RUSUMO, UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANZANIA
Page 112 and 113: CHAPTER 5 THE WAY FORWARD: REALIGNI
Page 114 and 115: BOX 21 THE AGRICULTURE SECTORS AND
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TABLE A.1 (CONTINUED) REFERENCE GEO
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TABLE A.2 NET EMISSIONS AND REMOVAL
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TABLE A.2 (CONTINUED) EMISSIONS FRO
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TABLE A.2 (CONTINUED) EMISSIONS FRO
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TABLE A.2 (CONTINUED) Svalbard and
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TABLE A.3 (CONTINUED) BURNING CROP
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REFERENCES CHAPTER 1 Alexandratos,
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REFERENCES Antle, J.M. & Crissman,
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REFERENCES Lancelot, R., de La Rocq
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REFERENCES Seo, N. & Mendelsohn, R.
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REFERENCES Burney J.A., Davis S.J.
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REFERENCES Holmes, R. & Jones, N. 2
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REFERENCES Rasmussen, L. V., Mertz,
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REFERENCES EC (European Commission)
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REFERENCES Mottet, A., Henderson, B
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REFERENCES Arslan, A., McCarthy, N.
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REFERENCES Government of Thailand.
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REFERENCES Moriondo, M., Bindi, M.,
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SPECIAL CHAPTERS OF THE STATE OF FO
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2016 THE STATE OF FOOD AND AGRICULT
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AGRICULTURE

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