AGRICULTURE

CHAPTER 3 ADAPTING TO CLIMATE CHANGE IN SMALLHOLDER AGRICULTURE
The consequences of exposure to climate hazards
depend on sensitivity, i.e. the degree to which
an agro-ecological or socio-economic system
responds, both positively and negatively, to a
given change. Increasing scarcity and
degradation of natural resources heighten the
sensitivity of smallholder agriculture to climate
hazards, because degraded resources are less
capable of maintaining productivity under
climate stresses (FAO, 2012). For example, while
there is sufficient water to satisfy the demand for
food at the global level, an increasing number of
regions face growing water scarcity, which will
impact rural and urban livelihoods, food security
and economic activities (FAO, 2011a; FAO and
World Water Council, 2015). Further degradation
of water quality and quantity under climate
change reduces the supply of water for food
production, affecting food availability, stability,
access and utilization, especially in the arid and
semi-arid tropics and in Asian and African
mega-deltas (Bates et al., 2008). Rationalizing
water use in agriculture will greatly facilitate
adaptation to climate change in smallholder
production systems.
Rural women are especially sensitive to climate
hazards, owing to their gender-determined
household responsibilities (such as collecting
wood and water) and the increasing agricultural
workloads they bear because of male outmigration
(see e.g. Jost et al., 2015; Agwu and
Okhimamwe, 2009; Goh, 2012; Wright and
Chandani, 2014). Increases in the incidence of
drought and water shortages add to their
workloads, affecting both agricultural
productivity and household welfare (UNDP,
2010). See also Box 8.
The limited capacity of smallholders to manage
risks is another source of sensitivity to climate
hazards. During extreme events, they adopt
precautionary strategies – for example, selling
cattle – which may protect them against
catastrophic losses but undermine long-term
livelihood opportunities and can trap them in
chronic poverty (Carter and Barrett, 2006;
Dercon, 1996; Dercon and Christiaensen, 2007;
Fafchamps, 2003; Morduch, 1994; Kebede, 1992;
Simtowe, 2006). Climate uncertainties and risk
aversion also impact rural financial markets
and supply chains in ways that further reduce
opportunities and deepen farm-level poverty
traps (Barrett and Swallow, 2006; Kelly,
Adesina and Gordon, 2003; Poulton, Kydd and
Dorward, 2006).
In smallholder agriculture, adaptive capacity – or
the ability to identify and implement effective
actions in response to changing circumstances –
is limited by barriers to the adoption of improved,
climate-smart technologies and practices. For
example, the lack of access to credit for
investment affects, particularly, the poorest
households, which are usually unable to provide
collateral for loans, and female producers, who
often have no formal title to assets. Other
barriers include lack of land tenure security, very
limited access to information, extension advice
and markets, a lack of safety nets to protect
livelihoods against shocks, and gender-bias in all
of those institutions.
Most of the interventions needed to improve
smallholders’ capacity to adapt to climate change
are the same as those required for general rural
development, but with a stronger focus on
climate risks. For example, extension packages
need to take into account site-specific climate
change projections; investments in the breeding
of improved crop varieties and animal breeds
should consider not only high yield but also
resistance to shocks expected in specific locations
(Box 9). Investments are urgently needed in
irrigation and other water management
infrastructure. These issues are taken up in more
detail in the following sections. •
TOWARDS RESILIENT
PRODUCTION SYSTEMS
AND LIVELIHOODS
The vulnerability of smallholders to climate
change adds to the more general difficulties they
face in enhancing their productivity and
improving their livelihoods. Consequently, »
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