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Discussion 105 Regarding product preference, when a subject is asked to judge a product by comparing it to other products, it is likely that he will judge the product either positively or negatively, depending on whether he judges the other products inversely as respectively negative or positive as a whole. This inverted relationship is also known as the contrast effect (Kardes, 1999). Such contrast effects might also occur through other contextual stimuli (Brickman, Coates and Janoff-Bulman, 1978). Indeed, the study does does not take into account situational influences (e.g. an unexpected, sudden need to buy a product) which influence the buying behavior (Foxall, Brown and Goldsmith, 1998). It is difficult to make correct predictions of behavior based on attitudes and intentions (Ajzen and Fishbein, 1977), often lacking information regarding, for instance, the time and context in which an action is to be taken (Foxall, Brown and Goldsmith, 1998). The larger the time interval between intention and behavior, the lower the predictive potential of intention (Fishbein, 1973). This reality is not provided by the research setting. Regarding the transfer of personality traits of celebrities onto products, it is noteworthy that many actors used in the research of this thesis do not suffer from typecasting and assume various roles during their life and career. As a result, a consumer might have an attitude towards a certain role of a celebrity and ascribe certain personality traits to this celebrity. There is thus a chance there is a spillover effect of attitudes and personality traits ascribed to previous roles, as celebrities draw these meanings from the roles they take on in their careers (McCracken, 1989). Exposure or non-exposure to these roles might result in different attitudes and perceptions among consumers. In addition, it can be expected that attitudes towards certain characters are influenced by the intensity of the parasocial relationship consumers foster: TV series provide due to long-term viewing a better basis for intense relationships (and thus stronger meanings conveyed through the characters) than movies as well as the effectiveness of product placement resulting from such relationships (Russell and Puto, 1999). Using a heterogeneous group of subjects composed of various nationalities brings along the challenge of a proper interpretation of personality traits, even though language specific personality traits were used in obtaining data on personality traits for this research, one personality trait in one language might not carry the same weight as in another language (Wyer, 1974, De Raad, 2006) or might not even have an equivalent in a target language. Cultural differences might have as a result that overarching personality dimensions might only partially share the same meaning across languages (Mooij, 2011). Similar cultural differences exist when it comes to the definition of the dimensions of brand personality. As a result, when a company attributes one personality trait to a brand, there is a possibility this will result in different personalities attached to this brand depending on the cultural background of the audience, leading to a discrepancy in personality as a perceived by the audience and the personality the company wants the audience to perceive (Aaker, Benet-Martinez and Garolera, 2001; Mooij, 2011). Other research has proven however the dimensions of hu-
106 Discussion man personality to remain reliable across cultures (Paunonen et al., 1992). In conclusion: it might be possible that due to different interpretations of personality traits, different brand personalities might be perceived. It might therefore be advisable to work with different subsets of personality traits in order to safeguard and control a consistent brand personality across cultures (Mooij, 2011). Another limitation concerns the difference in overarching categorization of personality traits due to working with both personality traits of characters and traits of brands. This might mpact on meaning transfer: as there is a gap between traits which are considered descriptive for human personality (Cattell, Eber and Tatsuoka, 1970; Costa and McCrea, 1992; Goldberg, 1992) and the ones which are descriptive for brand personality (Aaker, 1997), using one model over another results in either lack of descriptive quality at the source of the meaning transfer (the character) or at the target (the brand). Furthermore, the study primarily focused on the transfer between personality traits from the character onto the brand, but it does not unveil if such traits are transferred onto the consumer (Russell and Stern, 2006), which is a relevant field of study as consumers have a preference for brands which are congruent with their self-concept (Dolich, 1969). The research does not account for limitations resulting from previous exposure to other marketing communications for one brand nor for the synergetic effects that might result from these (McCarthy, 2002 and Kotler, 2012): by aligning the communication objectives of the various promotional activities, a company can indeed reach better results through the synergies created across the media used. The research does not know which marketing objectives were to be achieved through product placement of the various brands. After all, marketers and media owners are not legally obliged to unveil whether or not product placement is used (Russell and Belch, 2005). It is therefore only possible to assume which meanings were desired to be transferred from a celebrity to a product (Russell and Stern, 2006). The study focused on a select number of product categories. It is therefore not possible to predict the effects of product placement in different product categories, even though previous research indicated that some of the product categories used for this thesis are among the ones most used for product placement, particularly for the Czech Republic (Kramolis and Drabkova, 2012). It also does not account for differences in consumer decision making depending on the initial strength of the attitude from the consumer towards a certain category of products (Howard and Sheth, 1969). Furthermore, the study does not consider the stage in the product life cycle of the product (Foxall, Brown and Goldsmith, 1998) and whether this affects the product placement effectiveness. As such it can for instance not discern between newly-launched products and products which already exist on the market for a longer time. Though the research of this thesis attempted to recreate a real-life setting in which consumer behavior could be observed, the amount of distractions or noise
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The Effects of Product Placement on
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I would firstly and foremost like t
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Abstract VAN WICHELEN, Steven. The
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4.3 Self-reported effects of produc
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12 Introduction x
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14 Objectives 2 Objectives The gene
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16 Literature Survey 3 Literature S
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18 Literature Survey through brand
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20 Literature Survey Fig. 2 Sub-dim
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22 Literature Survey bring about gr
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24 Literature Survey 3.2.2 Product
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26 Literature Survey only (AUD) and
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28 Literature Survey Apéria and Ge
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30 Literature Survey and the charac
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32 Literature Survey Tab. 1 Alignme
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34 Literature Survey and experience
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36 Literature Survey Fig. 7 A model
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38 Literature Survey (words, object
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40 Literature Survey affective comp
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42 Methods and materials 4 Methods
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44 Methods and materials can stand
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46 Methods and materials moderator,
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48 Methods and materials 4.3 Self-r
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50 Methods and materials As the aim
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52 Methods and materials Before exp
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Page 57 and 58: 56 Methods and materials fer across
Page 59: 58 Methods and materials The second
Page 64 and 65: Results 63 Overall, brand recall wa
Page 66 and 67: Results 65 indicating a medium to l
Page 68 and 69: Results 67 To assess the level of s
Page 70 and 71: Results 69 Tab. 18 Crosstabulation:
Page 72 and 73: Results 71 20 15 10 5 0 15 14 9 5 0
Page 74 and 75: Results 73 Audiovisual types of pro
Page 76 and 77: Results 75 Tab. 23 Crosstabulation:
Page 78 and 79: Results 77 and 60%. The amount of s
Page 80 and 81: Results 79 Tab. 27 Product placemen
Page 82 and 83: Results 81 Fig. 21 Visual product p
Page 84 and 85: Results 83 24. With 32 subjects ind
Page 86 and 87: Results 85 Fig. 26 Audiovisual prod
Page 88 and 89: Results 87 brand is likely the reas
Page 90 and 91: Results 89 Starbucks 15 14 Red Bull
Page 92 and 93: Results 91 Starbucks 2.66 2.96 Red
Page 94 and 95: Results 93 The results regarding th
Page 96 and 97: Results 95 became less descriptive.
Page 98 and 99: Results 97 Red Bull (control group)
Page 100 and 101: Results 99 Starbucks 2.85 2.86 Red
Page 102 and 103: Results 101 to evoking and recallin
Page 104 and 105: Results 103 influence. It does not
Page 108 and 109: Discussion 107 (Kotler, 2012) in th
Page 110 and 111: Benefits of the thesis 109 • Mana
Page 112 and 113: Conclusion 111 evoke brand recall t
Page 114 and 115: References 113 9 References Aaker,
Page 116 and 117: References 115 Cacioppo, J. )., & P
Page 118 and 119: References 117 Ferrier, M. (2014, J
Page 120 and 121: References 119 Kahneman, D. (1973).
Page 122 and 123: References 121 McGuire, William J.
Page 124 and 125: References 123 Rossiter, J. R. (199
Page 126 and 127: References 125 Wiles, M. A., & Dani
Page 128 and 129: List of tables 127 Tab. 22 Intervie
Page 130 and 131: List of figures 129 Fig. 23 Visual
Page 132 and 133: Appendix 131 B Questionnaire interv
Page 134 and 135: Appendix 133 7. Which of the follow
Page 136 and 137: Appendix 135 Name Surname Gender Ag
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