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Literature Survey 21 inform or remind (Kotler, 2012). These processes of the Message Learning approach are in turn affected by the following independent variables: the sender (the source of the message), the message (the content of the message), the receiver (the one who receives the message) and the medium (through which medium the message is sent) (Kardes, 1999; Kotler, 2012). These are the building blocks of the communication process, see figure 3, a way how meaning of brands is communicated (Foxall, Brown and Goldsmith, 1998; Kotler, 2012) where the sender first encodes the message using a medium which is then decoded by the receiver. The channel or media refers to the means through which the message is transferred which can be formal or informal (Foxall, Brown and Goldsmith, 1998). This can result in a certain response and possibly feedback towards the initial sender. This entire process is subject to noise, which may negatively affect the communication objectives (Kotler, 2012). Fig. 3 Elements in the communication process Source: Kotler, 2012, p. 414 (own adaptation) The key components of the communication process are thus the sender, the receiver, the message and the media. The next section describes how the characteristics of each of these components affects the communication process. 3.1.4 Sender, receiver, media and message characteristics The effectiveness of communication in terms of persuasion is affected by the various characteristics of the sender, the receiver, media and message (Kardes, 1999). The sender or source of the communication regard the communicator's characteristics in terms of expertness/credibility and attractiveness (Hovland and Weiss, 1951; Foxall, Brown and Goldsmith, 1998; Kardes, 1999) and is essential for how a message is received by an audience (Kardes, 1999). Through his level of expertise, the endorser is more likely to change the attitude of a consumer than a non-expert (Foxall, Brown and Goldsmith, 1998). It is noteworthy that the persuasiveness and trustworthiness of a message tends to be higher when the source argues against its own interests (Pechmann, 1992). Another characteristic of an endorser as communicator is his attractiveness: the source attractiveness model states that for a message to be effective the source depends on its familiarity, likability, similarity, physical appearance and presentation style (McGuire, 1985; Kardes, 1999). A disliked source can
22 Literature Survey bring about greater message processing than a liked source (White and Harkins, 1994). The message is affected by various factors such as its complexity, the usage of either one-sided or two-sided messages, rational and emotional appeals, the order of presentation, etc. (Kardes, 1999). The message can be executed utilizing various styles: slice of life, mood or image, technical expertise, lifestyle, musical, scientific evidence, fantasy, personality symbol or testimonial and endorsement (Kotler, 2012). Receiver characteristics also play a role in persuasion and can be explained through the theory of personality and persuasion (McGuire, 1976). This theory puts forth that there is a relation between personality on the one hand and reception and yielding as mediators on the other. Reception stands for a subjects capacity to perceive and comprehend a message whereas yielding stands for a subjects likeliness to succumb to the persuasiveness of a message. It is shown that persuasion is optimal at average levels of reception and yielding (McGuire, 1976; Kardes, 1999). Medium characteristics can influence the persuasiveness of a message depending on the usage of either audiovisual, audio or written media and depending on the message complexity. Persuasion tends to be high either when using a simple message through audiovisual or audio-only media or when using a complex message through a written medium (Chaiken and Eagly, 1976). The next segment will specifically describe the endorsement process as a message style to transfer meaning through a message. 3.2 Product placement 3.2.1 Product placement definition Product placement is by most authors perceived as a type of promotion which is a component of the promotion mix. Advertising can be defined as any paid form of non-personal presentation and promotion of ideas, goods or services by an identified sponsor (Keller, Apéria and Georgson, 2008, p. 230). The types of media used in advertising include among others television, radio and magazines. It is specifically within this advertising context that the concept of product placement will be clarified as a means to communicate and persuade as well as how the communicators characteristics can be employed within this communication process. Product placement can be defined as the paid inclusion of branded products or brand identifiers, through audio and/or visual means, within mass media programming (Karrh, 2003, p. 138). Product placement or embedded marketing is defined by the European Union as any form of audiovisual commercial communication consisting of the inclusion of or reference to a product, a service or the trademark thereof so that it is featured within a program, in return for payment or for similar consideration. The usage of product placement by marketers as an advertising form is attributed to the fragmented and oversaturated media landscape. A context in which these communication types might be more impactful than usual advertisements on
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Results 71 20 15 10 5 0 15 14 9 5 0
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Results 73 Audiovisual types of pro
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Results 75 Tab. 23 Crosstabulation:
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Results 77 and 60%. The amount of s
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Results 79 Tab. 27 Product placemen
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Results 81 Fig. 21 Visual product p
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Results 83 24. With 32 subjects ind
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Results 85 Fig. 26 Audiovisual prod
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Results 87 brand is likely the reas
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Results 89 Starbucks 15 14 Red Bull
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Results 91 Starbucks 2.66 2.96 Red
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Results 93 The results regarding th
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Results 95 became less descriptive.
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Results 97 Red Bull (control group)
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Results 99 Starbucks 2.85 2.86 Red
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Results 101 to evoking and recallin
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Results 103 influence. It does not
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Discussion 105 Regarding product pr
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Discussion 107 (Kotler, 2012) in th
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Benefits of the thesis 109 • Mana
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Conclusion 111 evoke brand recall t
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References 113 9 References Aaker,
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References 115 Cacioppo, J. )., & P
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References 117 Ferrier, M. (2014, J
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References 119 Kahneman, D. (1973).
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References 121 McGuire, William J.
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References 123 Rossiter, J. R. (199
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References 125 Wiles, M. A., & Dani
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List of tables 127 Tab. 22 Intervie
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List of figures 129 Fig. 23 Visual
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Appendix 131 B Questionnaire interv
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Appendix 133 7. Which of the follow
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