Clusters and competitiveness - PRO INNO Europe

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2. Some rationale for territorial system-based policies The support to the generation and dissemination of innovations within enterprises and in the whole society plays a central role in current policy making. However, this problem can be examined from different perspectives. The traditional one places innovation upstream oftheproductionprocessinan(a-territorial)logicoflineardevelopment, whichproceedsinapre-establishedsequencefrominventiontotheproductionand marketing of artefacts, thereby moving through the various phases of applied research and development. Although in the very beginning of the process university industry relations may play a role, particularly when the latter are large enterprises holding major research laboratories,theleadingactorsoftheprocessaresingleenterprises 52 .The support to innovation is, therefore, a question of defining and managing appropriate monetary incentives in the different phases, and in particular of stimulating an increase in expenditure on R&D activities. When the various phases are not comprised under the umbrella of major enterprises, the policies may be complemented by specific measures aimed atfacilitatingthematchingbetweeninnovationsupply(upstream)anddemand (downstream). These approacheshavedominatedthescenarioofindustrialpolicies(aswellasthat ofinnovationstudies)fordecades,untilthenineties.However,duringthesametimea largebodyofexperiences and literature have emerged, suggesting deeper reflections on the multidimensional quality of innovation, and the need to adopt systemic and procedural approaches.Themainfocusofinnovationstudieshavegraduallyshiftedto processesthattakeplaceinconditionsofuncertainty,withcomplexfeedbackandstrong interdependencies and complementarities between science, technology, production, marketsandinstitutions(Edquist,1997).Newunitsofanalysisandpolicyinterventionsthus emerge, which exhibit a systemic nature. Among the new system-based perspectives on innovation, we take here that focussing on territorially embedded system. This perspective hinges on the “local forces” of development, which in Italy for example have led to the consolidation of the industrial districts (Brusco, 1994; Becattini et al., 2003).Accordingtothisapproach,processesfor mobilising network of entrepreneurial energies and cognitive bases for productive and innovative work are not confined within the boundaries of enterprises, industries and markets, but insteadtheyevolvewithinthelivingcontextsoftheterritoriestowhich the populations of researchers, entrepreneurs and other agents belong. The working mechanism of localcreativityandinnovationreliesonanarchitectureofsystemic conditions,whichisrepresentedbyspecificpublicgoods.Thelattermaybetangible orintangiblepublicgoodswhosebasicfeaturesarespecifictothelocalprocesses ofproductionandinnovationtakingplaceatthelocalscale.Specificplatformsfor university-industry interactions, convergent investments in new components and competencies, educational and training programmes focused on the local needs, a set of wellfunctioninglocallabourandproductmarkets,aswellasawidegroupofrulesof 52 See Kline and Rosenberg (1986) and Rothwell (1994) for a diachronic review of innovative theories and policy approaches until the Nineties. 118 CLUSTERS AND COMPETITIVENESS: THE CASE OF CATALONIA (1993-2010)
interactions betweenlocalagents,areallexamplesofsuchgoods.Withinanevolving system,partofthesegoodsmaybegovernedbyinformalinstitutionslikecustomsand conventions, emerging organically from the localized set of producers (Trigilia, 2005). However, customs and conventions change slowly, through incremental adaptation. They tend to fail when higher challenges demand discontinuous adaptation. Similarly, the useoftangiblepublicgoodsregulatedonlybymeansofcustoms(the“commons”) showsheavydynamicfailures.Hereweseetheimportanceofanappropriatecollective action(Schmitz,1999).Henceforththecollectiveefficiencyofsuccessfullocalitiesof industryseemstobealsostronglyrelatedtothecrucialroleofco-operativebehaviours among private agents and of strategic action by policy-makers. More directly,publicactionsuppliesorregulatesthesupplyofpublicgoodsstrongly linkedtotheterritory,wherethelimitsoftheinformalinstitutionsandofprivatejoint action are stricter. Public action is particularly important when a bifurcation in the path of development is met, and private actions are weakened by high uncertainty and lack ofcoordination.Theperspectivesofpositiveresultsareenhancedifscenariosare constructedwithinapublicsphereofinterests,ideasontheperspectivesarediscussed bythelocalsociety,andleadershipiswonontheabilitytoprogressalongadirection that presents long run advantages against short run risks and costs (Garofoli, 2001). Alargevarietyofpolicyinstrumentsisassociatedwiththisperspective,forthesimple reason that there has to be a significant bottom-up component of local governance 53 . Nevertheless, the principal instrument is represented by the support to the bottom-up construction of networks relations aimed at the systematic incorporation of technicalscientific knowledge for the development of the local knowledge base. If theterritoryisnotaneutralsupportbutamilieu with specific and differentiated characters strictly linkedwithinnovativeprocesses,theinnovationpolicieshavetobe implemented in appropriate territorial units. These are represented not only by the industrial districts, butbyawidervarietyoftypesofurbanandregionalsystem,such asthedynamiccitiesandtheregionalinnovationsystems.Unitssuchastheprevious threeonesarethepassiveobjectofpolicieswithinthetraditionallinearvision(theyare basicallyadministrativefieldsofpolicyimplementation);theybecomeevolvingunitsof governance processes within the systemic approach to innovation. 3. The role of the regional governance The current European policies for innovation and industrial development place a great emphasis on the regional level of policy-making. The relevance of the regional level (NUTS 2) ofgovernmentandgovernancehasbeensomehowanticipatedbyItalianpolicies launchedatthebeginningofthenineties,whichrecognizedthatlocallyrootedsystems such as the industrial district should have been supported by regional policies. 53 See Belussi (1999). ANNEX: CLUSTERS AND COMPETITIVENESS: FLORENCE, BOSTON, BARCELONA 119
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Clusters and competitiveness: the c
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Hernández Gascón, Joan Miquel Clu
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Acknowledgements Verymanypeople,com
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Index of tables Table 1. The local
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Figure 31. Textile distribution tre
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The term “cluster” is used to r
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The last effect of the new focus, a
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Figure 11. Map of the local industr
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Figure 14. Joint work scheme of the
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Figure 16. Main competitiveness rei
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Figure 33. The change in project de
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Catalonia was a pioneer in the use
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Cluster policy, understood as a ser
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A little theory: Marshall, Becattin
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However, the proliferation of regio
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the diversity of clusters themselve
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The first step: the competitive adv
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political environment which conditi
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Figure 2. The clusters of the futur
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1. To invest in lasting long-term c
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4.1 Introduction Following the impa
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4.2 First stage: 1993-2004 4.2.1 Me
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This working method led the members
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4.2.2 A case study: the leather tan
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added to this industry’s strong d
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Figure 9. Comparison between the pr
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Within this framework, Igualada’s
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4.2.3 Some lessons More than twenty
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Finally, and with the aim of transm
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the initial stage was selected, eli
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Table 1. The local production syste
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Table 3. Relative importance of ind
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Page 90 and 91: countries in the 1990s. However, th
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Page 94 and 95: total in 2005 was 66.7%; in the Bas
Page 96 and 97: Table 6.Trends in value added by la
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Page 100 and 101: With regard to strategies, the anal
Page 102 and 103: Table 7. Professional profiles of e
Page 104 and 105: In terms of the positive results ac
Page 106 and 107: In 2009, after over fifteen years
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Page 110 and 111: implementing the subsequent actions
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Page 124 and 125: of the specific interventions to re
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Page 128 and 129: 7. References Altobelli, C.andCarna
Page 130 and 131: Schmitz, H. (1999): “Collective e
Page 132 and 133: 2. Clusters as building blocks of a
Page 134 and 135: Anumberofempiricalstudieslookatallt
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Page 142 and 143: 3.3 Implementing cluster policy to
Page 144 and 145: as a way to leverage existing agglo
Page 146 and 147: Boekholt, Patrice and Shonie McKibb
Page 148 and 149: Fritsch, Michael and Viktor Slavtch
Page 150 and 151: Porter, Michael E.: Clusters and Co
Page 152 and 153: C. Clusters: a strategic tool Anton
Page 154 and 155: The other characteristic of our pro
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Page 158 and 159: • Gaining insight into a country
Page 160 and 161: Diez, M. A. (2001): “The Evaluati
Page 164: Joan Miquel Hernández Gascón (Val
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